LIBRARY' 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

OF* 


<&£g^ 

S~7 

Received          jic- 
Accession  No.  7  y^  (9  (o  .    Class  No. 


rTTY  YYTTYT  Y  TITTY  TYTTTTT 


CULTURE 


THE  CITRUS  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


RESEARCH  BY  B.  M.  LKLONU, 

SECKETAKY  STATE  BOARD  OF  HORTICULTURE,  AND  CHIEF 
HORTICULTURAL  OFFICER, 


Assisted  by  Experienced  Horticulturists. 


SACK  AM  KNTO  : 

A.   .1.   JOHNSTON,          :          :          :          :          :         Sri'KRIXTKNDK.NT    STATK    PRINTING. 


\ 


OFTHlt 

UNIVERSITY 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE   I. 


WASHINGTON  NAVELS-THE  "KING  OF  ORANGES."    (REDUCED. 


CULTURE 


THE  CITRUS  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


RESEARCH  BY  B.  M.  LELONG, 
*» 

SECRETARY  STATE  BOARD  OF  HORTICULTURE,  AND  CHIEF 
HORTICULTURAL  OFFICER, 


Assisted  by  Experienced  Horticulturists. 


A.  J.  JOHNSTON,         : 


SACRAMENTO: 

:         :          :         SUPERINTENDENT   STATE    PRINTING. 
1900. 


PRESERVATION 
COPY  ADDED 
ORIGINAL  TO  BE 
RETAINED 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  BOARD  OF  HORTICULTURE 


ELLWOOD  COOPER..  .....  ..President  ______  .........  _______  Santa  Barbara 

Commissioner  for  the  Los  Angeles  District. 

FRANK  H.  BUCK  .........  ...Vice-President..  .......  ..........  ..Vacaville 

Commissioner  for  the  Napa  District. 

WILLIAM  B.  GESTER  .......  Treasurer  _____________  ......  __  .....  Newcastle 

Commissioner  for  the  El  Dorado  District. 

RUSS  D.  STEPHENS  .........  Auditor  ________  ........  __________  Sacramento 

Commissioner  for  the  State  at  Large. 

THOMAS  A.  RICE....  .......  ..  ...................  .  .................  ..El  Rio 

Commissioner  for  the  State  at  Large. 

H.  WEINSTOCK  ........................  ______  ..................  Sacramento 

Commissioner  for  the  Sacramento  District. 

BEN  M.  MADDOX  ........  .  ..................................  .  .......  Visalia 

Commissioner  for  the  San  Joaquin  District. 

A.  BLOCK  ............  .  ............  .  .............................  Santa  Clara 

Commissioner  for  the  San  Francisco  District. 

W.  J.  HOTCHKISS  .......  ______  ...............  ...  ............  ...Healdsburg 

Commissioner  for  the  Sonoma  District. 


B.  M.  LELONG  .......  .  .......  ....Secretary  and  Chief  Horticultural  Officer 

ALEXANDER  CRAW  ................  Quarantine  Officer  and  Entomologist 

ELLA  F.  HALLAHAN..  ...Clerk 


OFFICES: 

State  Capitol,  Sacramento. 
Branch  Office,  Clay  Street  Dock,  San  Francisco. 


OFFICE  OF  STATE  BOARD  OF  HORTICULTURE, 
SACRAMENTO,  GAL.,  April  3, 1900. 

To  His  Excellency  HENRY  T.  GAGE,  Governor  of  California: 

SIR:  In  compliance  with  requests  made  by  fruit-growers 
and  persons  engaging  in  the  citrus  industry,  as  to  methods 
pertaining  to  the  culture,  preparation,  etc.,  of  citrus  fruits, 
we  have  caused  a  research  to  be  made  covering  almost  every 
phase  of  the  industry,  so  far  as  we  were  able  to  do.  Through 
the  assistance  of  experienced  growers  of  our  State,  we  have 
completed  this  report,  which  we  herewith  submit. 

The  compilation  of  the  material  comprising  this  volume 
required  personal  inspection  of  the  sections  where  such  fruits 
are  grown,  as  well  as  much  painstaking  research  and  study. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

ELLWOOD  COOPER, 

President. 


FRUITING  BRANCH  OF  THE  ORANGE  (Citru. 


s  aurantium). 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  9 

CITRUS  CULTURE  IN  CALIFORNIA    -  13 

PRIMITIVE  ORCHARDS  17 

EXPANSION  OF  ORANGE  CULTURE  20 

TABLE  OF  CITRUS  FRUIT  PRODUCTS  21-22 

ESPECIALLY  FAVORABLE  AND  DANGEROUS  LOCALITIES  22 

POLLINATION— HYBRIDS  23 

METHODS   USED  IN   HYBRIDIZING   PLANTS.    By  W.  T.  Swingle  and 

H.  J.  Webber  26 

WHAT  ARE  HYBRIDS?    By  W.  T.  Swingle  and  H.  J.  Webber                    29 
PURPOSE  AND  GROWTH  OF  PRIMAL  TYPES.    By  Wm.  C.  Fuller        -         30 

PERIOD  OF  FRUITFULNESS  42 

THE  AGE  OF  CITRUS  TREES.    By  E.  W.  Holmes  43 

THE   ORANGE. 

VARIETIES— THE  SWEET  ORANGE  49 

NAVEL  TYPE  51 

Washington  Navel — History  of      -  51-58 

ST.  MICHAEL  TYPE    -  59 

BLOOD  TYPE  61 

STANDARD  VARIETIES  WITH  No  DISTINCTIVE  MARK  61 

TANGIERINE-MANDARIN  TYPE    -  63 

MISCELLANEOUS  JAPANESE  CITRUS  FRUITS  66 

KUMQUAT  TYPE     -       *"':'•"•    •  •  •*  -  •" -;- '  69 

THE  SOUR  ORANGE  70 

THE  BITTER  ORANGE  72 

MYRTLE-LEAF  TYPE  72 

THE  SHADDOCK  73 

THE  POMELO  75 

THE  OTAHEITE  ORANGE  82 

THE  DECIDUOUS  ORANGE  83 

MISCELLANEOUS  VARIETIES  83 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ORANGE  84 

BUDDING   -------  91 

WORKING  OVER  LARGE  ORANGE  TREES  -                 95 

PLANTING  -    100 

SOILS  105 

IRRIGATION  -    106 

CULTIVATION       -  109 

SUBSOIL  PLOW.    By  J.  H.  Reed  -    110 

PRUNING  114 

THE  ORANGE  CROP— GATHERING,  ETC.  121 

THE  STANDARD  ORANGE  Box  -        123 

STANDARD  CAR  OF  ORANGES 125 

ORANGE  DROPPING,  DISEASES,  ETC.  127 

YELLOW  AND  VARIEGATED  LEAVES   -  -                    128 

GUM  DISEASE 130 


8  CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

FERTILIZATION      -  -    133 

THE  USE  OF  FERTILIZERS.    By  C.  C.  Chapman  134 

FERTILIZING  CITRUS  TREES.    By  N.  W.  Blanchard        -  -    138 

ECONOMY  IN  FERTILIZATION.    By  Prof.  E.  W.  Hilgard      -        -  140 

ADVANTAGE  OF  FERTILIZING  SMALL  TREES.    By  J.  M.  Edmison  •    145 
FERTILIZING  THE  SOIL  AS  AFFECTING  THE  ORANGE  IN  HEALTH  AND 

DISEASE.    By  Herbert  J.  Webber  (by  error,  H.  J.  Webster)  145 

FROST  PROTECTION     -       -  -    151 

QUESTIONS  AFFECTING  ORANGE  CULTURE  157 

THE   LEMON. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  TREE,  FRUIT,  ETC.  -    161 

VARIETIES    -  163 

THE  SWEET,  OR  BERGAMOT,  LEMON  -    166 

PRUNING  172 

THE  BARONIO  METHOD.    By  A.  C.  Baronio    -  -    178 

OPEN  CENTER  METHOD.    By  C.  W.  Leffingwell,  Jr.    -  187 

OPEN  HORIZONTAL  TRIMMING.    By  George  P.  Hall  -    193 

SEMI-BARONIO  SYSTEM     -  196 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  LEMON  -    197 

LEMON  SIZES;  STANDARD  BOX  203 

COST  OF  HANDLING  LEMONS  -    203 

SICILIAN  LEMON  INDUSTRY.    By  W.  Catton  Grasby,  F.L.S.  205 

THE   CITRON. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  FRUIT                                                 -       -       -       -  227 

PROPAGATION  -    228 

VARIETIES    -  230 

PREPARATION  OF  CITRON  RIND    -  -    230 

COMMERCIAL  IMPORTANCE  231 

THE   LIME. 

TREE,  FRUIT,  CULTIVATION,  PRUNING,  ETC.         , -  -   -       -  -    235 

VARIETIES    -  236 

PRODUCTS    OF  THE    CITRUS. 

BY-PRODUCTS  OF  CITRUS  FRUITS  -    239 
INSECT   PESTS,  ETC. 

INSECT  PESTS  AFFECTING  THE  CITRUS         -----  245 

FORMULAS  FOR  DESTROYING  INSECT  PESTS         -        -        -  -    255 

BENEFICIAL  INSECTS -PREDACEOUS     ------  259 


ERRATA. 

The  author  of  the  article,  "  Fertilizing  the  Soil  as  Affecting  the  Orange  in 
Health  and  Disease,"  on  page  145,  should  be  HERBERT  J.  WEBBER,  and  not 
"Herbert  J.  Webster." 

The  following  description  was  inadvertently  omitted : 

STEVENS  ORANGE.— Japan.  Bears  two  crops  a  year— one  matures  in 
the  summer,  and  the  other  in  the  winter.  Tree  of  dwarf,  bushy  growth; 
thornless.  Fruit  pale  yellow ;  juice  subacid,  delicious.  Grown  by  Mrs.  L.  C. 
Stevens,  of  Santa  Barbara.  (See  illustration,  page  65.) 


UNIVERSITY 


THE  CITRUS. 


ITS  CULTURE  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


BY  B.  M.  LELONG, 
Secretary  of  State  Board  of  Horticulture,  and  Chief  Horticultural  Officer. 


THE  CALIFORNIA  FRUIT  INDUSTRY. 

The  most  important  of  all  California's  varied  industries  at 
the  present  day  is  fruit-growing.  It  has  rapidly  come  to  be  a 
great  productive  industry,  and  has  overshadowed  all  others  in 
its  extent  and  importance.  Stock-growing,  mining,  agricul- 
ture, viticulture,  have  all  been  overtaken  and  passed  on  the 
road,  and  to-day  the  production,  handling,  and  marketing  of 
the  various  fruits  of  the  State  give  employment  to  a  larger 
number  of  people  and  have  more  capital  invested  in  them  than 
any  other  class  of  enterprises  in  California.  Horticulture  is  the 
staple  industry  of  the  State,  and  everything  that  will  affect  it 
for  either  good  or  bad  is  watched  with  great  interest.  The 
condition  of  the  weather  in  the  Eastern  fruit  sections,  the 
records  of  the  thermometer  in  our  own  State,  the  climatic  con- 
ditions affecting  the  bloom  or  the  setting  of  the  fruit,  the 
coming  and  spread  of  pests  or  diseases,  are  all  watched  with 
the  keenest  anxiety,  for  they  mean  to  the  State  at  large  good 
or  bad  times  as  the  indications  are  favorable  or  otherwise. 
Out  of  this  pursuit  has  grown  numerous  organizations  having 
in  view  the  advancement  of  the  industry  on  various  lines. 
These  are  both  public  and  private.  There  are  State  and  County 
boards  of  horticultural  commissioners,  whose  duties  are  pro- 
tective; fruit-growers'  associations;  cooperative  associations  for 
curing  and  marketing  fruits,  fruit  exchanges  and  fruit  unions, 
besides  district  and  county  horticultural  societies.  All  these 
are  the  outgrowth  of  this  industry  and  all  are  working  to 


10  STATE    BOARD   OF    HORTICULTURE. 

advance  it  to  the  line  of  perfection  as  nearly  as  possible.  One 
of  the  remarkable  things  in  connection  with  fruit-growing  is 
the  rapidity  with  which  it  has  forced  itself  to  the  front.  For,, 
while  fruit  has  been  grown  in  California  from  the  date  of  the 
first  settlement,  it  is  only  within  the  past  twenty  years  that  the 
industry  has  come  into  any  prominence.  In  that  time  it  has 
become  the  great  specialty  of  the  State,  so  that  California  now 
boasts  the  proud  distinction  of  being  the  orchard  of  the  United 
States. 

The  climate  and  soil  of  the  State  render  it  especially  adapted 
to  fruit  culture.  In  common  with  all  our  pastoral  and  agricul- 
tural pursuits,  California  owes  the  introduction  of  horticulture 
to  the  Mission  Fathers,  who  first  of  all  planted  fruit-bearing 
trees  on  the  Pacific  shores.  These  plantings  were  small  and  of 
no  great  importance  except  so  far  as  they  proved  that  fruit 
would  do  well  in  California.  Their  orchards  were  planted  with 
no  regard  to  their  commercial  value,  and  the  only  object  in 
planting  them  was  to  furnish  the  Fathers  and  their  servants 
with  fresh  fruit.  The  best  varieties  then  obtainable  found 
their  way  here,  but  no  effort  was  made  to  improve  them.  In 
fact,  early  horticulture  in  California,  as  with  all  other  develop- 
ments of  agriculture,  was  very  crude,  and  its  products  in  no 
way  comparable  with  those  of  the  present  age;  but  in  the 
planting  of  their  primitive  orchards  the  Fathers  laid  the  foun- 
dation for  a  gigantic  industry  and  "builded  better  than  they 
knew." 

In  1767  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  the  missions  in 
Lower  California,  their  possessions  were  turned  over  to  the 
Franciscans,  and  Junipero  Serra  was  selected  as  President  of 
the  Missions.  A  dispute  arose  between  the  Franciscans  and 
Dominicans  over  the  division  of  the  property.  The  latter 
claimed  an  interest  in  the  mission  work.  In  consequence  of 
this  a  division  was  made,  and  in  1769  the  Franciscans  started 
northward,  entering  and  occupying  what  is  now  the  State  of 
California.  The  avowed  object  of  their  establishment  was  the 
conversion  of  the  savage  races  to  Christianity  ;  but  while  devot- 
ing themselves  to  the  harvest  of  souls  the  Fathers  did  not 
neglect  the  material  interests  of  themselves  or  their  establish- 
ments. The  surrounding  country  was  speedily  subdued  and 
the  natives  were  changed  from  hunters  to  herdsmen  and  the 
flocks  of  the  missions  became  numerous  and  of  great  value. 


CITRUS   CULTURE    IN   CALIFORNIA.  11 

It  was  not  thought  possible  in  those  early  days  that  the  vast 
plains  of  California  would  ever  be  available  for  other  than 
grazing  purposes.  To  the  civilized  world  this  State,  together 
with  the  whole  Pacific  Coast,  was  known  as  the  "  great 
American  desert."  It  was  known  that  there  were  fertile  spots, 
but  these  were  regarded  like  the  oases  in  the  Sahara,  as  but 
accentuating  the  aridity  of  the  surrounding  waste. 

Jose  del  Galvez,  "  visitor-general"  and  secular  head,  with 
Father  Serra,  made  arrangements  for  the  establishment  of 
settlements.  Twenty-one  missions  were  established,  all  but 
three  of  which  had  gardens  and  orchards.  The  mission 
orchards  were  very  small,  and  some  consisted  of  but  few  trees, 
but  those  trees  played  an  important  part  in  the  horticultural 
advancement  of  the  State,  for  they  showed  the  possibilities  in 
fruit  culture,  and  furnished  seeds,  stocks,  and  cions  for  many 
orchards. 

After  the  occupation  of  the  southern  part  of  the  State  by  the 
Franciscans,  the  Russians,  actuated  by  entirely  different 
motives,  penetrated  from  the  north.  The  Mission  Fathers 
were  bent  upon  the  spiritual  conquest  of  the  new  land;  the 
Russian  traders  upon  its  commercial  conquest ;  yet  the  efforts 
of  both,  diverse  at  first,  converged  in  the  conquest  of  the  wild 
Pacific  tribes  to  modern  civilization,  and  both  brought  with 
them  civilizing  influences.  The  Russians  who  obtained  a  foot- 
hold here  early  in  the  century  planted  an  orchard  of  mixed 
deciduous  fruits  at  Fort  Ross,  as  early  as  1812.  The  Russian 
orchards,  like  those  of  the  Mission  Fathers,  were  not  planted 
from  a  commercial  consideration,  but  to  supply  their  respective 
owners  with  fruit  for  home  consumption.  However,  like  the 
corresponding  industry  in  the  south,  it  served  to  prove  that 
fruit  would  grow  in  California,  and  thus  became  the  pioneer  of 
the  present  great  wealth-producing  industry  of  the  State. 

The  fruits  introduced  into  the  two  sections  of  the  State  were 
characteristic  of  the  countries  from  which  they  were  brought. 
The  chief  fruits  brought  by  the  Fathers  were  oranges,  figs,  grapes, 
and  olives — all  fruits  of  a  genial  southern  clime.  They  met  on 
common  ground  in  California  with  those  of  the  more  rugged 
climate  of  the  north — apples,  pears,  and  cherries,  introduced 
by  the  Russian  pioneers.  It  speaks  highly  for  the  diversity  of 
products  to  which  this  State  is  adapted  that  both  once  having 
obtained  a  foothold  maintained  it,  and  to-day  we  find  the  apple 


12  STATE   BOARD   OF    HORTICULTURE. 

of  the  north  growing  side  by  side  with  the  orange  of  the  south, 
while  the  pear  and  the  lemon  thrive  together.  The  varieties 
of  fruit  grown  in  the  missions  of  Lower  California  whence  the 
Franciscans  derived  their  stock,  were  few  in  number  and  con- 
sisted of  figs,  citrons,  oranges,  pomegranates,  plantains,  olives, 
and  dates.  There  were  no  fruits  of  the  north  temperate  zone, 
unless  it  were  a  few  peaches  of  very  indifferent  quality,  which 
did  not  thrive  well  and  were  not  regarded  as  worth  much  con- 
sideration. 

As  elsewhere  related,  the  Franciscans  made  their  first  estab- 
lishment at  San  Diego  in  1769,  and  proceeded  from  that  point 
northward,  establishing  altogether  twenty-one  missions;  the 
last  one  being  at  Sonoma  in  1823.  Here  they  found  the  Rus- 
sian settlements,  and  the  horticultural  products  of  the  north 
and  the  south  met  and  have  grown  together  since.  At  each  of 
their  missions  the  Fathers  established  orchards. 

Vancouver,  in  his  memoir  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  in  1792, 
describes  an  orchard  which  he  found  at  Santa  Clara  in  which 
were  growing  apples,  peaches,  pears,  apricots,  and  figs,  the 
trees  all  being  thrifty  and  promising.  He  further  details 
finding  at  the  mission  of  San  Buenaventura  apples,  pears, 
plums,  figs,  oranges,  grapes,  peaches,  and  pomegranates.  The 
orchards  connected  with  the  Mission  San  Gabriel  were  among 
the  most  extensive  of  that  early  period,  having,  among  other 
fruits  growing,  oranges,  citrons,  limes,  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
pomegranates,  and  figs;  grapes  also  grew  in  abundance. 

No  statistical  accounts  are  extant  recording  the  number  of 
trees  or  the  amount  of  fruit  produced  by  the  missions  at  the 
period  of  their  greatest  prosperity.  Inventories  of  the  mission 
properties  were  made  at  the  time  of  their  secularization  in 
1834.  That  of  the  Santa  Ynez  Mission  recorded  987  fruit 
trees,  valued  at  $1  each.  San  Fernando  returned  1,600  fruit 
trees,  valued  at  $1.50  each;  San  Gabriel,  2,333  fruit  trees,  upon 
which  no  valuation  was  placed;  and  San  Diego  returned  517 
olive  trees.  Outside  of  the  missions  there  were  a  few  attempts 
(at  horticulture,  which  might  be  called  the  "  prehistoric " 
orchards  of  the  State. 

From  the  period  of  the  secularization  of  the  missions  the 
early  fruit  industry  began  to  decline.  In  a  few  instances  the 
orchards  were  kept  up  to  their  original  standard  of  excellence, 
but  these  were  exceptional  cases,  and  when  General  Fremont 


CITRUS   CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  13 

visited  California  in  1846,  he  wrote  of  them  that  "  little  remains 
of  the  orchards  that  were  kept  in  high  cultivation  at  the 
missions.  *  *  *  Fertile  valleys  are  overgrown  with  wild 
mustard;  vineyards  and  olive  orchards  are  decayed  and 
neglected." 

While  most  of  the  orchards  were  thus  allowed  to  fall  into 
decay,  a  few  still  maintained  their  early  vigor.  Of  one  of 
these  General  Fremont,  in  his  "Geographical  Memoir,"  says: 
"Among  the  arid  brush-covered  hills  south  of  San  Diego 
we  found  little  valleys  converted  by  a  single  spring  into 
crowded  gardens,  where  pears,  peaches,  quinces,  pomegranates, 
grapes,  olives,  and  other  fruits  grew  luxuriantly  together,  the 
little  streams  acting  upon  them  like  a  principle  of  life." 

Some  of  the  earlier  settlers,  with  foresight  enough  to  see 
that  there  was  profit  in  fruit,  secured  some  of  the  mission 
orchards,  and  under  skillful  treatment  and  fostering  care  these 
were  made  productive  again  by  careful  pruning,  cultivation, 
and  irrigation.  These  enterprising  orchardists  reaped  a  golden 
reward  for  their  labor. 

The  early  plantings  in  the  north  were  generally  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  mines  and  were  small  family  orchards.  But 
little  care  was  bestowed  upon  them,  as  fruit-growing  then  was 
not  the  science  it  has  since  developed  into.  All  sorts  of  seeds 
were  planted  and  these  were  allowed  to  grow  and  bear  when 
and  how  they  would.  But  as  the  demand  for  better  varieties 
of  fruit  increased,  efforts  at  improvement  were  made,  and 
better  stock  was  sought. 

CITRUS  CULTURE  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

The  discovery  of  the  fact  that  citrus  fruits  could  be  pro- 
duced successfully  and  profitably,  gave  an  impetus  to  the 
growth  of  a  most  important  industry  in  our  State,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  southern  counties,  which  is  almost  unprecedented 
in  the  history  of  our  Union. 

California  is  essentially  devoted  to  specialties,  and  while 
each  of  the  numerous  industries  like  the  prune,  raisin,  peach, 
walnut,  almond,  etc.,  is  pursued  in  the  different  sections,  and 
while  each  of  these  industries  is  followed  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  in  the  surrounding  counties,  so  Southern  California 
became  the  center  of  the  citrus  industry.  Land  which  had 


14  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

been  regarded  as  worthless  rapidly  advanced  in  value  as  the 
industry  grew,  and  as  its  possibilities  began  to  dawn  upon 
the  knowledge  of  the  grower,  its  value  continued  to  increase. 
Cities,  towns,  and  villages  sprang  up,  whose  birth,  existence, 
and  future  depended  upon  the  condition  of  the  orange  market. 
Extensive  systems  of  irrigation  were  developed,  and  a  large 
extent  of  territory  which  had  at  the  commencement  of  this 
growth  been  regarded  as  a  desert  was  converted  into  a  vast 
orchard,  filled  with  pleasant  homes  and  a  prosperous  popula- 
tion. 

While  orange  trees  were  among  the  earliest  introduced  into 
our  Sta"te,  having  been  brought  here  by  the  Mission  Fathers,  it 
may  be  said  that  orange  culture  is  of  very  modern  origin,  and 
the  industry  has  assumed  commercial  importance  only  since 
1880. 

The  so-called  citrus  region  is  one  of  indefinite  boundaries, 
and  the  question  of  where  oranges  would  or  would  not  grow 
has  given  rise  to  much  acrimonious  discussion  between  various 
sections  of  the  State.  It  may  be  set  down  as  a  fact  that  the 
orange  will  flourish  in  spots  over  the  greater  part  of  the  State, 
the  exceptions  being  in  the  extreme  northern  counties  and  the 
higher  altitudes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  Range.  The 
cultivation  of  citrus  fruits  has  formed  the  chief  horticultural 
industry  of  the  extreme  southern  counties,  and  from  this  fact 
an  impression  has  gone  abroad  that  they  would  not  flourish 
elsewhere.  They  are  found  in  places  along  the  entire  length 
of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  valleys,  and  very  excellent 
fruit  is  grown  as  far  north  as  Shasta.  Of  course  this  vast  area 
is  not  all  adapted  to  the  culture  of  citrus  fruits,  in  fact  but  a 
small  proportion  of  it  is  so  adapted,  but  enough  has  been  done 
to  prove  that  the  climatic  conditions  required  by  the  orange 
and  lemon  are  to  be  found  over  a  large  part  of  California. 
While,  too,  the  citrus  fruit  industry  is  the  principal  one  of  the 
southern  counties,  not  all  of  the  land  in  that  section  is  suit- 
able for  the  growth  of  citrus  fruits. 

Outside  of  the  southern  counties  citrus  fruits  of  exceedingly 
good  quality  are  grown  in  the  foothills  of  Kern  County.  In 
Tulare  County  there  is  a  strip  of  land  along  the  base  of  the 
foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  where  oranges  have 
been  planted  on  a  large  scale,  and  they  are  grown  very  suc- 
cessfully both  at  the  north  and  south  ends  of  the  belt.  Citrus 


CITRUS   CULTURE    IN   CALIFORNIA.  15 

fruits  grown  at  Porterville  are  rapidly  assuming  a  front  posi- 
tion and  share  the  honors  in  this  line  with  other  similarly 
favored  sections  of  the  south.  All  along  the  foothills  where 
water  can  be  obtained  oranges  thrive.  There  are  no  damaging 
frosts  or  destructive  winds.  There  are  a  number  of  fine  orch- 
ards, and  large  areas  of  new  land  are  being  planted  every  year 
to  citrus  fruits. 

Placer  County  has  numerous  citrus  orchards,  and  the  area 
in  citrus  culture  is  gradually  extending,  especially  about  New- 
castle, Loomis,  Rocklin,  and  Penryn. 

In  Sacramento  County  considerable  attention  is  now  devoted 
to  the  culture  of  citrus  fruits,  at  Orangevale  and  Fair  Oaks. 
In  the  former  colony  large  plantings  are  to  be  seen  and  large 
shipments  of  this  fruit  are  being  made  annually  therefrom. 

Citrus  fruits  do  well  over  a  large  portion  of  Butte  County, 
which  county  is  entitled  to  the  position  of  leader  in  the  north- 
ern citrus  belt.  Prior  to  1886,  citrus  culture  was  largely 
experimental,  although  even  at  that  time  the  fact  that  oranges 
would  grow  there  and  could  be  made  a  profitable  crop  had 
gradually  forced  itself  upon  the  attention  of  fruit-growers. 
The  winning  of  the  award  at  the  Northern  Citrus  Fair  in  Sac- 
ramento that  year,  confirmed  the  belief  of  the  citrus-growers 
there,  and  a  great  impetus  was  given  to  the  new  industry, 
until  now  Butte  County  is  better  known  for  her  production  of 
citrus  fruits  than  for  those  which  had  so  far  proved  of  greater 
commercial  importance.  The  colonies  of  Thermalito  and 
Palermo  have  taken  their  chief  impetus  from  the  fact  that 
oranges  will  grow  there,  and  the  planting  of  orange  trees  has 
not  diminished,  but  rather  increased  with  time.  Wyandotte, 
adjacent  to  Palermo,  is  another  favorite  section  where  citrus 
fruits  are  grown  successfully.  The  oldest  orange  tree  in 
Northern  California  is  at  Bidwell's  Bar  (Butte  County),  where 
it  may  still  be  seen.  This  tree  was  grown  from  seed  of  an 
Acapulco  orange  planted  by  Jesse  Morrill  at  Sacramento  in 
1855  and  transplanted  to  its  present  site  in  1859.  (See  illus- 
tration on  next  page.) 

In  Yuba  County  large  tracts  have  been  set  out  in  orange 
trees,  notably  at  Wheatland  and  Smartsville. 

In  Stanislaus  County  the  area  of  citrus-growing  is  being 
rapidly  extended.  The  orange  has  been  successfully  grown 
about  Knight's  Ferry  for  a  number  of  years,  but  only  recently 


16 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


has  the  culture  of  this  fruit  been,  pursued  on  a  large  scale. 
Extensive  plantings  are  being  made  about  Qakdale. 

The  western  portion  of  Amador  County  is  admirably  adapted 
to  fruit-growing.  The  same  citrus  belt  traverses  this  county 
that  encircles  the  northern  counties  of  Butte,  Nevada,  and 
Placer,  and  oranges  and  lemons  of  remarkable  size  and  flavor 
have  been  produced  there. 

In  Calaveras  County  citrus  fruits  have  not  been  grown  very 
extensively,  but  at  Campo  Seco  there  are  orange  trees  over 

thirty  years  old,  which 
bear  good  crops  annu- 
ally, as  also  in  the 
citrus  belt  which  em- 
braces the  northern 
part  of  the  county. 

In  Fresno  County 
until  recently  very 
little  attention  was 
paid  to  growing  citrus 
fruits.  A  few  orange 
orchards  in  the  foot- 
hill regions  of  the 
county  showed  the 
future  possibilities  of 
the  section,  and  the 
acreage  is  now  being 
rapidly  extended.  The 
oranges  and  lemons 
exhibited  at  the  Fres- 
no citrus  fairs  in  the 
past  two  years  com- 
pared favorably  with  those  grown  in  other  favored  sections 
adjoining. 

In  Merced  County  the  orange  thrives  best  in  the  thermal 
belt  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  foothills.  There  are  numerous 
plantings  in  and  about  Merced  City. 

Fine  fruit  has  also  been  exhibited  at  the  Cloverdale  citrus 
fairs  held  there  for  the  past  four  seasons,  showing  the  possi- 
bilities of  that  section  in  citrus  culture. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  statements  that  the  citrus  belt  of 
California  is  not  confined  within  any  mere  geographical  boun- 


The  oldest  orange  tree  in  Northern  California,  at 
Bidwell's  Bar,  transplanted  in  1859. 


CITRUS   CULTURE    IN    CA 


17 


daries,  and  no  compass  and  chain  can  separate  the  so-called 
southern  from  the  northern  citrus  belt,  but  that  with  proper 
conditions  citrus  fruits  can  be  grown  over  a  larg^area  of  the 
State,  ami  without  proper  .Climatic  conditions  they  can  not  be 
grown  successfully.  ^  .  /. 

./» x 

Primitive  Orchards. — The  most  extensive  orange  orchard 
of  early  planting  was  at  the  San  Gabriel  Mission,  in  Los 
Angeles  County,  supposed  to  have  been  set  out  in  1804 
by  one  "Father"  Thomas  Sanches.  The  first  orange  orchard 
of  any  note,  outside  of  the  missions,  although  small  and 
intended  for  home  use,  was  planted  by  Louis  Vignes  at  Los 


The  once  famous  Wolfskill  Orange  Orchard — trees  forty  years  old. 

Angeles  in  1834.  That  same  year  Manuel  Requena  also 
planted  a  small  orchard.  Other  plantings  soon  followed,  the 
most  notable  and  important  of  which  was  that  of  the  late 
William  Wolfskill,  at  Los  Angeles,  consisting  of  two  acres  set  out 
in  1841,  and  this  was  probably  the  first  orange  orchard  planted 
in  the  State  with  a  view  to  profit.  In  1853  the  Matthew  Keller 
orchard,  opposite  the  Wolfskill  orchard,  was  planted.  Another 
orchard  was  planted  north  of  the  San  Gabriel  Mission,  now 
known  as  the  Wilson  orchard.  These  plantings  did  not 
immediately  succeed  each  other,  but  a  considerable  period 
elapsed  from  the  date  of  the  setting  out  of  the  mission  orchard, 
and  even  after  the  success  of  this  latter  orchard  had  been 
assured  other  plantings  were  slow  and  not  extensive. 
2c 


18  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

In  1857  a  few  trees  were  planted  at  old  San  Bernardino  by 
L.  Van  Leuven  from  seed  grown  by  him.  He  also  planted  the 
same  year  forty-five  trees  obtained  from  Los  Angeles.  About 
two  hundred  were  planted  at  Crafton  by  Myron  H.  Crafts, 
about  1865.  The  first  seeds  were  planted  at  Riverside  in  1870, 
and  the  first  trees  in  orchard,  grown  from  these  seeds,  in  1872 
and  1873.  In  1869  Frank  A.  Kimball  planted  some  orange 
and  lemon  trees  at  National  City,  San  Diego  County.  At  that 
time  there  were  two  old  orange  trees  growing  in  El  Cajon  Valley. 

But  little  progress  was  made  in  orange  culture  from  1857 
until  1862,  at  which  date  there  were  but  twenty-five  thousand 
trees  in  the  entire  State,  and  two  thirds  of  these  were  in  the 
Wolfskill  orchard.  From  this  date  the  planting  of  orange 


Orange  Avenue  at  San  Gabriel— trees  thirty  years  old. 

trees  increased,  but  not  with  any  great  rapidity  until  1873, 
when  the  first  impetus  was  given  to  the  industry.  Southern 
California  was  out  of  the  reach  of  railroad  transportation. 
Fruit  for  the  market  was  hauled  to  Los  Angeles  in  wagons  and 
from  there  transferred  to  rail  and  steamer.  This  process  was 
slow  and  expensive,  and  but  a  limited  area,  and  that  not  the 
best  land  for  the  purpose,  could  be  cultivated.  The  completion 
of  the  Southern  Pacific  line,  however,  gave  superior  transporta- 
tion facilities,  and  at  the  same  time  opened  a  new  and  better 
fruit  region.  Riverside  had  already  started,  having  been  set- 
tled in  1869,  and  a  considerable  area  of  orchard  land  was  set 
to  oranges.  Shipments  of  fruit  to  San  Francisco  and  the  East 
commenced  and  they  brought  good  returns  and  encouraged  the- 


CITRUS   CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA.  19 

growers.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  ^opening  of  the  Atchi- 
son,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  lines  that  the  highest  development 
took  place.  From  this  time  on  there  was  a  veritable  boom  in 
orange  planting.  Some  of  the  returns  from  these  orchards 
were  almost  incredible,  as  much  as  $3,000  from  one  acre  hav- 
ing been  reported,  and  $800  to  $1,000  being  no  uncommon 
yield.  Of  course  an  industry  that  would  pay  such  profits 
was  eagerly  sought.  Land  suitable  for  orchards  advanced 
rapidly  in  value;  other  lands  advanced  collaterally,  and  it 
became  profitable  to  subdue  them  to  this  purpose.  Land  com- 
panies, irrigation  companies,  and  planting  companies  were 
organized  with  sufficient  capital  to  carry  out  their  schemes, 
and  the  whole  extent  of  a  country  which  had  been  a  forbidding 
waste  was  soon  converted  into  a  fruitful  orchard.  The  very 
face  of  nature  was  changed,  and  in  a  few  years  Southern  Cali- 
fornia became  one  of  the  most  important  sections  of  the  State. 

In  1862,  H.  M.  White  planted  two  orange  trees  in  Frazier 
Valley,  east  of  Porterville,  Tulare  County,  which  are  still 
bearing  and  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  forty-acre  orchard 
that  now  surrounds  the  original  tree  at  Piano,  in  the  same 
county;  Mrs.  Gibbons,  in  1863,  planted  some  orange  seed  as  an 
experiment,  which  proved  successful.  Other  plantings  followed, 
until  the  present  citrus  district  of  Porterville  developed.  The 
first  orchard  was  planted  in  Porterville  in  1883,  by  A.  R. 
Henry.  About  the  same  date  a  small  planting  was  made  at 
Centerville,  Fresno  County.  A  few  trees  were  planted  by  the 
agent  of  the  Marysville  and  Oroville  railroad  as  early  as  1868, 
in  his  garden  at  Oroville,  Butte  County. 

A  small  orange  grove  was  planted  by  Nicholas  Carriger  in 
1871,  about  two  and  a  half  miles  west  of  the  town  of  So- 
noma. Mr,.  L.  L.  Lewis,  the  present  owner,  says:  "  These  trees 
are  now  over  three  feet  in  circumference,  and  some  of  them  will 
yield  this  season  as  high  as  twenty -five  boxes  of  oranges." 

Thus  we  find  that,  as  early  as  1870,  small  orange  groves  had 
been  planted  all  along  the  foothills  from  San  Diego  to  Butte 
County.  Plantings  in  many  of  the  valley  counties  had  also 
been  made  up  to  this  date.  These  latter  have  served  to  prove 
the  inadaptability  of  the  valleys  to  the  growth  of  the  industry, 
while  along  the  foothills  the  small  beginnings  have  developed 
into  one  of  the  most  permanent  and  profitable  branches  of 
horticulture  in  the  State. 


20  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

Expansion  of  Orange  Culture. — While  oranges  had  been 
grown  in  the  most  favored  sections  of  Southern  California,  and 
to  a  very  small  extent  in  other  portions  of  the  State,  to  River- 
side is  due  the  great  impetus  that  brought  the  industry  into 
national  prominence.  The  twenty  varieties  of  oranges  that 
competed  against  the  world  at  the  New  Orleans  World's  Fair, 
and  to  which  was  awarded  the  gold  medal  for  their  superiority, 
were  grown  at  Riverside,  and  the  fact  was  heralded  the  world 
over.  It  is  also  largely  to  Riverside  that  the  orange  industry 
is  indebted  for  its  present  importance,  from  the  success  attained 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  Washington  Navel,  an  orange  which 
achieved  widespread  fame  for  itself  and  the  location  where  it 
was  first  successfully  grown  (Riverside). 


A  Riverside  Washington  Navel  Orange  Grove. 

The  importation  of  the  Australian  ladybird  ( Vedalia  car- 
dinalis)  gave  another  impetus  to  the  industry,  and  the  work  of 
this  little  insect  in  this  State  cannot  be  better  illustrated  than  by 
the  reported  shipments  of  citrus  fruits  from  Los  Angeles  before 
and  after  its  introduction.  For  years  Los  Angeles  was  the  lead- 
ing shipper  of  citrus  fruits,  but  the  introduction  and  spread  of 
the  cottony  cushion  scale  (leery a  purchasi)  so  affected  the  indus- 
try that  it  was  on  the  verge  of  extinction.  In  1890,  San  Ber- 
nardino County  (now  divided  from  Riverside),  into  which  this 
scale  had  not  forced  its  way,  shipped  1,705  carloads  of  oranges, 
and  Los  Angeles  781.  The  Vedalia  practically  exterminated  the 
cottony  cushion  scale,  and  the  returns  in  1891  were  2,212  car- 
loads for  Los  Angeles  and  1,708  for  San  Bernardino,  an  increase 


CITRUS    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


21 


of  three  carloads  for  the  latter  county,  while  Los  Angeles 
advanced  in  one  season  from  781  to  2,212,  an  increase  of  1,431 
carloads.  The  increase  of  San  Bernardino  was  a  natural  one, 
but  that  of  Los  Angeles  was  due  to  the  advent  of  the  Vedalia 
and  not  to  the  coming  in  of  new  orchards. 

The  latest  tree  census  from  returns  made  by  County 
Assessors  shows  the  number  of  orange  and  lemon  trees  in  the 
State  to  be  as  follows: 

Oranges.  Lemons. 

Bearing  Trees 1,464,332  230,453 

Non-Bearing  Trees 1,969,940  963,572 

Total _ 3,434,272  1,194,025 

It  would  be  safe  to  add  to  the  above  figures  twenty  per  cent, 
which  would  be  nearer  correct.  We  then  have  1,757,198 
orange  trees  bearing  and  2,363,928  not  yet  bearing,  and 
276,543  lemon  trees  bearing  and  1,156,286  not  yet  bearing,  or  a 
total  of  5,553,955  orange  and  lemon  trees  in  the  State. 
Averaged  at  100  to  the  acre  we  have  55,539.55  acres  in  citrus 
trees  in  the  State. 

The  orange  shipments  for  1897-98  were  the  heaviest  in  the 
history  of  orange-growing  in  the  State.  The  shipments  of 
citrus  fruits  from  Southern  California  for  1898-99,  up  to  and 
including  September  30  (1899),  were  15,006  carloads,  as 
against  9,854  cars  in  1896-97.  Of  this  amount  1,500  carloads 
were  lemons.  The  citrus  fruit  shipments  for  the  same  period 
were  316  cars,  or  a  total  of  15,322  carloads  for  the  State. 

/ <?//  -  3&/  o 

TABLE  OF  CITRUS  FRUIT  PRODUCTS. 
Compiled  by  E.  F.  Howe. 


Season  of  1897-98. 

Cars 
Listed. 

Average 
Price. 

Cars 
Shipped. 

Boxes 
Shipped. 

Value 
Delivered. 

Nov.  and  Dec  — 
January  

141 

379 

$2  73 
2  243 

1,917 
1586 

644,412 
532,956 

$1,759,244  76 
1,195,510  31 

February  

642 

2  183 

2055 

690,480 

1  507,317  84 

March   

999 

2  039 

2569 

863,184 

1  760,232  18 

April 

1,074 

2  158 

2  731 

917,616 

1  980  215  33 

May  

728 

1  795 

1  641 

551  376 

989  719  92 

June 

534 

1  997 

1  405 

472  080 

943  682  30 

Balance  of  season 

603 

4  47 

*1,063 

359,168 

882,204  96 

Totals 

5  100 

$2  191 

*14  967 

5  029  272 

$11  018  127  60 

22 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 
Table  of  Citrus  Fruit  Products— Continued. 


Season  of  1897-98. 

Freight. 

Value  f.  o.  b. 
California. 

25  Per  Cent  of 
Freight. 

Industrial 
Value. 

Nov.  and  Dec  
January 

$579,960  80 
479,660  40 

$1,179,283  96 
715,849  91 

$144,990  20 
119  915  10 

$1,324,274  16 
835  765  01 

February 

621,432  00 

885,885  84 

155358  00 

1  041  243  84 

March.  

776,865  60 

983,366  58 

194,216  40 

1,177,582  98 

April  . 

825,854  40 

1,154,360  93 

206,463  60 

1,364  824  53 

May 

496  238  40 

493  481  52 

124  059  60 

617  541  12 

June  

424,872  00 

518,810  30 

106,218  00 

625  028  30 

Balance  of  season 

321,451  20 

-  560,753  76 

80,365  30 

641,119  06 

Totals  . 

$4,526,334  80 

$6,491,792  80 

$6  131  586  20 

$7  627  379  00 

*  A  bout. 

Especially  Favorable  and   Dangerous    Localities.— All 

along  the  belt  of  country  from  Tehama  County  to  San  Diego 
there  are  especially  protected  or  favored  localities  where  the 
orange  and  the  lemon  grow  to  perfection,  and  also  locali- 
ties where  it  would  be  unsafe  to  attempt  citrus  fruit  culture 
as  a  commercial  enterprise.  This  is  caused  by  the  local 
topography  of  the  country  and  does  not  depend  much  on  the 
altitude.  Wherever  cold  currents  of  air  from  high  altitudes 
flow  to  the  valley  without  interruption  it  will  not  be  safe  to 
attempt  citrus  culture  at  any  elevation  within  the  sweep  of 
these  currents.  On  the  other  hand,  wherever  these  descend- 
ing currents  are  cut  off  or  turned  aside  by  spurs  of  the  moun- 
tains, leaving  the  warm  atmosphere  .of  the  days  undisturbed 
during  the  nights,  there  orange  and  lemon  culture  may  be 
engaged  in  without  danger  from  frost.  In  other  words,  the 
eddies  of  air  currents  must  be  selected  and  the  main  flow  of 
these  currents  must  be  avoided. 

Every  one  who  has  traveled  along  these  Sierra  foothills 
parallel  with  the  valleys,  particularly  in  the  winter  season  and 
at  night,  will  recall  his  surprise  at  the  sudden  changes  of  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  within  short  distances.  He 
'may  also  remember  to  have  noticed  tender  plants  and  shrubs 
seared  and  frost  bitten,  while  just  over  a  ridge  or  cone  the 
same  plants  and  shrubs  were  in  full  leaf  and  growing  luxuri- 
antly. Want  of  attention  to  these  facts  has  caused  many  a 
disastrous  failure  in  the  cultivation  of  citrus  fruits  in 
California. 


CITRUS   CULTURE   IN    CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION.  23 

It  may  be  here  observed  that  these  peculiar  natural 
phenomena  are  more  striking  and  their  lessons  are  more 
imperative  north  than  south  of  the  Tehachapi  pass — for  the 
reason  that  south  of  that  point  the  coast  range  of  mountains  is 
broken  up  into  fragments,  and  the  tempering  influences  of  the 
waters  and  breezes  of  the  ocean  are  more  direct  and  powerful 
than  farther  north,  where  this  range  is  practically  unbroken 
and  the  citrus  belt  is  farther  inland.  These  disadvantages  of 
the  northern  section  are,  however,  somewhat  counteracted  in  the 
fact  that  the  drier  and  warmer  summer  atmosphere  is  a  greater 
guarantee  against  the  spread  and  ravages  of  insect  pests.  The 
more  elevated  inland  localities  in  the  south  have  this  same 
advantage  over  localities  nearer  the  coast. 

There  are  orange  and  lemon  trees  growing  in  nearly  all  of 
the  counties  of  the  State  not  exclusively  in  the  mountainous 
sections,  and  many  of  these  trees  are  bearing  more  or  less  fruit 
of  very  fair  quality.  For  climatic  reasons,  however,  the  citrus 
fruit  industry  is  and  must  be  confined  to  a  belt  of  country 
lying  along  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 
This  belt  is  called  the  "  Thermal  Belt."  It  stretches  from  San 
Diego  to  Tehama  County,  a  distance  of  over  seven  hundred 
miles,  and  varies  in  width  from  three  or  four  miles  to  twenty- 
five  or  thirty.  In  this  belt  it  is  estimated  there  are  about 
1,500,000  acres  of  land  adapted  to  the  safe  cultivation  of  citrus 
fruits  on  a  commercial  basis. 

The  altitude  ranges  from  30  to  1,800  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  mean  summer  temperature  of  this  belt  is  somewhat  higher 
in  the  northern  portion  than  in  the  southern,  but  the  mean 
winter  temperature  is  higher  in  the  southern  than  in  the 
northern  portion.  The  mean  temperature  for  the  year  does 
not  vary  more  than  four  degrees  throughout  the  whole  belt, 

POLLINATION— HYBRIDS. 

The  mixing  of  the  pollen  among  the  flowers  of  the  species 
has  given  birth  to  innumerable  hybrids,  distinguished  as  such 
and  designated  as  varieties,  by  their  remaining  constant,  i.  e. 
not  reverting  to  the  mother  type  after  continuous  propaga- 
tion. With  the  constant  multiplication  of  varieties  it  would 
be  difficult  to  trace  to  what  species  many  hybrids  belong. 
Many  partake  of  the  lemon,  the  orange,  and  the  citron. 


24  STATE    BOABD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

The  flower  of  the  orange  is  nothing  but  a  transformed 
branch,  either  coming  out  of  the  axilla  of  an  ordinary  leaf  or 
from  that  of  an  abortive  leaf,  usually  called  a  bract.  This 
transformed  branch,  or  flower,  in  the  orange,  consists  of  sev- 
eral whorls  or  transformed  leaves,  viz:  the  calyx  whorl,  the 
corolla  whorl,  the  stamina  whorl  or  whorls,  and  ovary  whorl 
or  whorls.  The  latter,  in  the  citrus  fruit,  consists  ordinarily 
of  two  distinct  whorls — the  outer  or  rind  whorl,  and  the  inner 
or  pulp  whorl.  The  flowers  of  the  greater  species  are  single— 
possessing  an  abundance  of  pollen.  Double  flowers  are  often 
produced  by  the  growth  of  additional  whorls  or  petals. 

Double  flowers  have  a  tendency  to  fruit-doubling.  The 
peculiarity  of  these  fruits  exists  in  the  ovary  before  fertiliza- 
tion, and  the  fruit  exhibiting  it  may  develop  without  having 
been  fertilized.  It  has  rarely  any  seeds,  and  when  present  are 
very  small  and  imperfect.  Such  instances  of  seedless  fruit 
plainly  show  that  the  so-called  superfcetation  could  not  have 
been  the  result  of  excess  fertilization,  as  there  are  no  germs  to 
be  fertilized,  and  even  if  there  are  any,  they  must  be  so  imper- 
fect that  no  fertilization  can  take  place.  This  result  might 
also  occur  from  imperfection  of  the  sexual  organs. 

The  orange  within  orange  is  nothing  but  a  doubling  of  the 
fruit  or  ovary  whorls.  It  is  the  result  of  the  doubling  of  the 
flower.  Gallesio  says:  "Certain  varieties,  like  the  double- 
flowered  bergamot,  when  not  highly  cultivated  and  left  to 
themselves,  lose  by  degrees  the  character  of  giving  double 
flowers  and  bear  only  single  ones." 

Artificial  fecundation  whenever  applied  has  given  varying 
results,  and  when  the  action  was  effected  upon  the  ovules  the 
fruit  was  not  modified,  but  the  ovules  grew  into  seeds,  which 
when  planted  produced  trees  and  fruit  entirely  distinct  from 
the  parent  trees. 

Fecundation  is  effected  naturally  among  pollen-producing 
flowers  by  insects,  birds,  the  wind,  and  by  friction.  The 
moment  the  flowers  reach  maturity  and  are  ready  for  fecunda- 
tion the  stigma  of  the  pistil  appears  as  if  gummed  with  a 
honey-like  substance,  and  serves  to  retain  the  dust-like  pollen 
when  applied  to  it.  The  flower  with  which  to  effect  fecunda- 
tion must  be  taken  when  nearly  ready  to  bloom,  must  be 
thrifty,  the  corolla  removed,  and  the  anthers  rubbed  upon  the 
stigma  to  be  fructified.  The  operation  is  repeated  until  the 


CITRUS   CULTURE   IN    CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION.  25 

stigma  assumes  its  normal  state,  and  care  must  be  exercised 
not  to  miss  the  moment  of  blooming  in  the  pistil. 

Varieties  of  the  orange  are  innumerable,  and  have  of  late 
years  been  imported  from  all  over  the  globe.  While  many  of 
these  possess  good  qualities,  the  majority  lack  the  most 
essential  characteristics  to  be  worthy  of  culture  for  profit. 
Attempts  to  improve  upon  the  varieties  now  fruiting  have 
been  made  by  cross-pollination,  but  without  results  of  much 
value,  although  numerous  varieties  possessed  of  some  merit 
have  been  thus  originated.  The  best  results  have  been 
through  Dame  Nature,  and  chance  seedlings  of  high  merit 
have  been  produced  without  the  aid  of  man.  But  while  some 
of  these  imported  sorts  and  home-grown  seedlings  have  been 
planted  quite  largely  throughout  the  State,  the  fruit,  being 
devoid  of  special  characteristics  through  which  their  qualities 
could  be  known  to  the  trade  and  distinguished  from  the 
ordinary  common  seedling,  often  sell  for  no  more,  if  as  much. 

The  only  variety  produced  by  what  may  be  termed  a  peculiar 
method  of  propagation  is  an  exceptionally  fine  type  of  Navel 
by  A.  C.  Thompson,  of  Duarte.  The  process,  which  is  men- 
tioned by  ancient  writers  upon  agriculture,  was  first  applied 
in  this  State  by  Mr.  Thompson,  and  was  performed  by  a  close 
intermarriage  of  the  wood  of  several  varieties,  which,  by  growing 
together,  resulted  in  a  combination  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  various  factors.  The  secret  of  the  operation  lies  in  the 
matching  of  two  half-buds  of  the  same  size  and  of  different 
sorts. 

The  process  Mr.  Thompson  describes  as  follows:  "The  bud 
is  composed  of  two  half-buds  of  the  same  size  put  together  and 
inserted  as  one,  waxed  over,  after  being  concaved  to  fit  the 
convex  side  of  the  stock,  and  concaved  a  little  also  in  the  split 
so  as  to  bring  both  edges  of  the  germ  together  closely.  This 
has  to  be  done  of  course  with  a  very  thin,  sharp  knife.  Now 
say,  for  instance,  that  one  of  the  half-buds  is  a  Washington 
Navel  and  the  other  half  a  St.  Michael.  These  grow  together 
and  form  one  shoot.  From  this  shoot  next  season  take  buds, 
a*nd  from  Malta  Blood  take  buds  of  equal  size  and  maturity; 
split  and  unite  these  halves  as  one  bud,  fit  them  well  and 
neatly  together,  wax  over  lightly,  and  cover  with  a  wax 
wrapper;  string  will  not  do,  as  the  buds  would  dry  out.  Next 
season  again  take  these  buds  from  this  new  growth  and  halve 


26  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

them  with  half-buds  of  Mediterranean  Sweet.  Here,  then, 
you  get  a  growth  which  includes  all  the  varieties  named.  At 
the  end  of  three  weeks  from  budding,  the  wrapper  has  to  be 
removed  and  the  buds  examined  with  a  magnifying  glass.  If 
the  union  is  complete  at  the  crown  of  the  germ  return  the 
wrapper,  to  exclude  sun  and  air  until  the  bud  starts  to  grow. 
Sometimes  only  one  half  of  the  bud  starts  to  grow;  all  such 
should  be  cut  out  and  the  budding  done  over  again.  Sometimes 
both  halves  die.  or  both  halves  grow  separately.  Then  it  has 
to  be  done  over  again  on  a  new  place  in  the  stock.  There 
ought  to  be  at  least  fifty  buds  of  each  combination  put  in  at 
the  same  time  to  cover  failures. 5> 

Mr.  Thompson  has  distributed  a  great  many  buds  and  trees 
among  his  neighbors  and  in  other  sections  of  the  State.  The 
trees  have  invariably  continued  to  produce  a  thin-skinned 
orange  and  seemingly  remaining  constant.  Many  have  claimed 
that  the  variety  has  not  produced  fruit  as  grown  on  the  original 
trees,  but  Mr.  Thompson  says  this  has  not  been  on  trees  which 
he  has  supplied.  The  buds  then  must  have  come  from  other 
trees  that  are  not  the  true  "  Improved  Navel." 

Methods  Used  in  Hybridizing  Plants.* 

The  process  of  hybridizing  plants  is  in  itself  neither  difficult 
nor  mysterious,  it  being  simply  necessary  to  understand  the 
general  structure  of  the  flower  to  be  used.  The  flowers  of  the 
tomato,  pear,  and  orange  may  be  taken  as  illustrating  the 
common  forms,  although,  of  course,  very  many  modifications 
occur.  The  envelopes  of  these  flowers,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
flowers  of  most  cultivated  plants,  consist  of  two  whorls  of 
modified  leaves.  The  outer  whorl,  which  is  known  as  the 
calyx,  is  commonly  green  like  the  foliage  and  is  divided  into 
several  distinct  or  more  or  less  united  lobes,  or  sepals  ;  while  the 
inner  whorl,  or  corolla,  is  usually  of  some  bright  color  other 
than  green,  and  its  different  divisions  or  lobes  are  known  as 
petals.  In  some  cases,  as  in  the  lily,  the  calyx  and  corolla 
are  of  the  same  color,  so  that  they  are  not  easily  distinguish- 
able; while  in  still  other  cases,  as  in  oaks,  walnuts,  etc.,  the 
corolla  is  entirely  wanting. 

*By  Walter  T.  Swingle  and  Herbert  J.  Webber,  Special  Agents  Department 
of  Agriculture.  Yearbook  1897,  p.  385. 


CITRUS    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA — -POLLINATION.  27 

The  essential,  or  sexual,  organs  of  the  flower,  the  stamens 
and  pistils,  are  found  inside  the  calyx  and  corolla,  and  it  is 
with  these  organs  that  the  hybridizer  is  most  concerned.  The 
stamens,  or  male  organs,  of  the  plant  are  usually  several  in 
number,  and  are  composed  of  an  upper  swollen  portion,  the 
anther,  which  is  borne  on  a  more  or  less  slender  stalk  called 
the  filament.  In  some  flowers,  as  in  those  of  the  tomato,  the 
filament  is  very  short,  and  in  others  is  entirely  wanting,  the 
anthers  being  borne  at  the  base  of  the  corolla.  The  very 
numerous  small,  yellow,  powdery  grains  of  pollen,  which  con- 
stitute the  male  fecundating  elements,  are  borne  in  sacks  in 
the  anthers.  When  the  anther  matures  these  sacks  burst  open 
and  the  pollen  is  exposed.  A  quantity  of  this  pollen  must  be 
transferred,  either  by  natural  or  artificial  means,  to  the  stigma 
of  the  female  organ  in  order  to  insure  fecundation.  The  appli- 
cation of  pollen  to  the  stigma  is  designated  pollination,  and 
successful  pollination — that  is,  the  application  of  pollen  to  the 
stigma,  followed  by  fecundation — is  termed  fertilization. 

The  pistil  or  pistils,  which  are  the  female  organs,  occupy  the 
center  of  the  flower  and  are  surrounded  by  the  stamens.  The 
upper  portion  of  the  pistil  is  usually  somewhat  swollen  and 
more  or  less  rough.  It  is  on  this  portion  of  the  pistil,  known 
as  the  stigma,  that  the  pollen  must  fall  to  produce  fecundation. 

In  the  majority  of  plants  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  pro- 
duced in  the  same  flower,  as  in  the  tomato  and  orange,  but  in 
certain  plants  they  are  produced  in  different  flowers  on  the 
same  plant,  as  in  walnuts,  castor  beans,  etc.,  or  on  different 
plants,  as  in  the  willow,  poplar,  etc. 

In  undertaking  to  hybridize  plants  artificially,  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  in  many  plants  the  stamens  and  pistils  when 
in  the  same  flower  mature  at  different  times — a  provision  to 
insure  cross-pollination  (the  application  of  the  pollen  of  one 
flower  to  the  stigma  of  another).  In  a  large  majority  of  such 
cases  the  stamens  ripen  first,  discharging  their  pollen  before 
the  pistil  is  receptive.  The  most  important  feature  in  the  work 
of  crossing  is  to  exclude  from  the  stigma  all  pollen  except  that 
which  it  is  desired  to  use.  The  prevention  of  self-pollination  (the 
transfer  of  pollen  to  the  stigma  of  the  same  flower)  in  perfect 
flowers— that  is,  flowers  containing  both  stamens  and  pistils — 
necessitates  the  careful  opening  of  the  flowers  intended  for 
hybridization  while  they  are  still  immature,  and  the  cutting  or 


28  STATE    BOARD   OF   HORTICULTURE. 

pulling  off  of  the  anthers  before  they  burst  and  allow  the  escape 
of  the  pollen.     This  process  is  termed  emasculation.    *    *    * 

In  the  manipulation  of  orange  flowers  mature  buds  nearly 
ready  to  open  are  selected  and  the  tips  of  the  corolla  carefully 
pried  apart  until  the  stamens  are  exposed.  In  these  flowers 
the  anthers  are  attached  to  the  filaments  by  very  slender 
threads,  which  are  easily  broken,  so  that  the  simplest  method 
of  removing  the  stamens  is  to  pull  them  off  with  fine-pointed 
forceps.  The  latter  may  also  be  conveniently  used  in  prying 
apart  the  corolla  lobes  of  the  bud.  During  the  process  of 
emasculation  in  this  and  all  other  cases  great  care  must  be 
exercised  not  to  open  the  stamens  and  accidentally  pollinate 
the  flower.  All  insects  must  be  watched  and  carefully  excluded. 
Fig.  3  shows  an  emasculated  flower  ready  to  bag. 


FIG.  1 — Orange  flower  bud,  FIG.  2 — Mature  orange  flower.  FIG.  3 — An  emasculated 
showing  stage  which  (Natural  size.)  orange  flower;  a,  shows 
should  be  selected  for  where  anthers  were  de- 
emasculation.  (Natural  tached.  (Natural  size.) 

8ize>)  (After  Swingle  and  Webber.) 

After  emasculating  the  flower  a  bag  of  some  closely  woven 
cloth  or  of  paper  should  be  carefully  passed  over  the  twig  bear- 
ing the  flower  and  tied  around  the  stem  below  the  flower  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  effectually  exclude  all  insects  and  foreign 
pollen.  The  manila  paper  sacks  used  by  grocers  are  employed 
almost  exclusively  for  this  purpose.  In  a  few  days  after 
emasculation  and  bagging,  when  the  pistils  have  had  time  to 
mature,  the  sacks  must  be  removed  and  the  pistils  pollinated, 
after  which  the  sacks  should  be  replaced  as  before  and  allowed 
to  remain  until  fecundation  has  taken  place  and  all  danger 
from  the  action  of  foreign  pollen  is  over.  In  most  cases  the 
sacks  should  then  be  removed,  as  they  are  likely  to  injure  the 
development  of  the  fruit.  In  some  cases,  as  in  the  orange, 
where  the  pistil  is  nearly  mature  when  the  bud  is  opened,  the 
pollen  may  be  applied  to  the  stigma  when  the  flower  is  emas- 
culated, thus  avoiding  the  trouble  of  opening  the  bag  later. 


CITRUS    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION.  29 

The  flowers  selected  for  emasculation  and  hybridization 
should  be  full-sized,  perfect  in  all  respects,  and  conveniently 
situated.  Those  on  the  end  of  a  twig  frequently  set  fruit  best. 
All  the  flowers  on  the  branch  which  are  not  used  should  be 
cut  off.  Frequently  several  flowers  of  the  same  age  can  be 
selected  on  the  same  branch,  emasculated,  and  inclosed  under 
the  same  bag. 

In  hybridizing,  many  different  methods  are  followed  in 
applying  the  pollen.  In  most  cases  where  an  abundance  of 
pollen  can  be  secured  the  freshly  burst  anthers  from  one  plant 
may  be  taken  with  fine-pointed  forceps  and  rubbed  over  the 
stigma  of  the  other  until  sufficient  pollen  has  been  transferred. 
This  is  probably  the  easiest  and  safest  method  in  most  cases. 
Some  hybridizers  transfer  the  pollen  with  a  small  ladle  or 
camel's-hair  brush,  and  occasionally  this  method  may  be  found 
somewhat  convenient,  especially  where  the  pollen  is  brought 
from  some  distance  and  has  largely  escaped  from  the  anthers. 

After  each  pollination  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
label  the  bag  in  such  a  way  that  there  will  be  no  question  as 
to  what  it  contains.  These  labels  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
after  the  bag  has  been  removed.  As  fruits,  like  oranges,  etc., 
approach  maturity  it  is  very  desirable  that  they  be  inclosed  in 
gauze  bags  firmly  tied  to  the  branches.  Such  bags  allow  the 
normal  development  of  the  fruit,  protect  it  from  being  picked 
accidentally,  and  in  case  the  fruit  falls  prematurely  preserve 
it  in  connection  with  the  label. 

What  are  Hybrids  ?* 

The  term  hybrid  is  by  many  applied  only  to  the  offspring 
obtained  by  crossing  two  plants  or  animals  sufficiently  different 
to  be  considered  by  naturalists  as  distinct  species,  while  the 
terms  mongrel  and  cross  are  used  to  designate  the  offspring  of 
two  cases  or  varieties  of  one  species.  It  was  formerly  supposed 
that  all  hybrids  were  more  or  less  sterile,  in  contradistinction  to 
mongrels,  which  were  believed  to  be  very  sterile.  It  has  been 
found,  however,  that  many  hybrids,  in  the  narrow  sense,  are 
very  fertile,  and  that  some  mongrels  are  nearly  sterile.  Since 
it  is  impossible  to  indicate  by  any  two  words,  such  as  hybrid 

*By  Walter  T.  Swingle  and  Herbert  Webber,  Special  Agents  Department 
of  Agriculture.  Yearbook  1897,  p.  384. 


30  STATE   BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

or  mongrel,  the  various  degrees  of  difference  of  the  forms  crossed, 
the  word  hybrid  is  here  used,  conformably  to  the  Century 
Dictionary,  as  a  generic  term,  to  include  all  organisms  arising 
from  a  cross  of  two  forms  noticeably  different,  whether  the 
difference  be  great  or  slight.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  to 
indicate  the  grade  of  the  forms  crossed,  such  as  racial  hybrid, 
bigeneric  hybrid,  etc.  Where  a  hybrid  of  two  species  is  crossed 
with  a  third  species  a  trispecific  hybrid  results. 

The  offspring  produced  by  the  union  of  two  plants  identical 
in  kind,  but  separated  in  descent  by  at  least  several  seed 
generations,  is  often  called  a  crossed,  cross-fertilized,  or  cross- 
bred plant,  but  it  is  not  a  hybrid,  as  the  essential  character  of 
a  hybrid  is  that  it  results  from  the  union  of  plants  differing 
more  or  less  in  kind;  or,  in  other  words,  is  the  result  of  a  union 
between  different  races,  varieties,  species,  genera,  etc.  On  the 
other  hand,  flowers  impregnated  with  their  own  pollen,  with 
the  pollen  of  another  flower  on  the  same  plant,  or  even  with 
pollen  from  another  plant  derived  from  the  same  original 
stock  by  cuttings,  grafts,  etc.,  are  said  to  be  self-fertilized,  and 
the  offspring  resulting  from  such  unions  are  also  termed  self- 
fertilized  plants.  With  some  plants,  such  as  tobacco  and 
wheat,  self-fertilization  is  the  rule.  In  many  cases,  however, 
the  flowers  are  so  constructed  that  cross-fertilization  is 
necessary,  all  possibility  of  self-pollination  being  precluded,  as 
in  the  case  of  hemp  and  other  plants  having  the  male  and 
female  flowers  on  separate  individuals. 

Purpose  and  Growth  of  Primal  Types.* 

Nature,  unaided  by  animate  creatures,  sets  her  aim  and 
degree  of  excellence  around  one  central  purpose.  It  is  to  pro- 
duce a  germ  to  perpetuate  her  products,  a  seed,  and  within 
that  seed  a  cluster  of  highly  organized  cells,  that  possess 
within  themselves  an  impulse,  and  a  power,  under  favorable 
conditions,  to  produce  a  type  nearly  identical  with  the  parent. 

We  cannot  comprehend  the  structure  of  this  tiny  association 
of  cells,  the  delicate  adjustment  of  its  parts  which  give  us  the 
variety  'of  the  orchard,  the  latent  impulse  that  has  been 
imparted  to  this  wonderful  unit  of  growth.  It  is  that  enigma 

*By  Wm.  C.  Fuller,  of  Colton,  Cal. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  II. 


SEEDLING  TAHITI  ORANGE— PRIMAL  TYPE.    (REDUCED.) 


32 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


of  life,  co-equal  and  co-splendent  with  the  human  soul,  the 
analysis  of  being. 

It  is  a  necessity  with  nature  that  every  precaution  of  pro- 
tection should  surround  this  seed  in  its  growth,  to  guard  it 
against  destruction,  and  to  complete  its  perfect  development. 

The  law  of  man's  self -existence  is,  that  when  the  seed  becomes 
his  food  whereby  he  lives,  every  effort  of  nature  must  be 
seconded  to  make  a  perfect  seed  protection.  When  the  seed  is 


Tahiti  Seedling— Primal  type.    (Reduced.) 

not  his  food  then  we  must  change,  or  entirely  eliminate,  one  or 
more  of  these  natural  guards,  and  allow  other  qualities  to 
displace  these  protective  qualities. 

If  wild  areas  were  occupied  by  a  species  where  the  varieties 
could  not  mix  by  pollination,  those  varieties  that  developed 
vital  seeds  would  thrive  by  perpetuating  a  race  only  slightly 
at  variance  with  the  primal  type. 

If  the  area  was  occupied  with  mixed  varieties,  those  having 


CITRUS    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA POLLINATION.  33 

the  most  virile  pollen,  or  those  the  best  sexed,  would  conquer  in 
the  race  for  existence,  and  only  that  variety  remain  which 
would  be  surrounded  by  the  greatest  protection  against  all 
possible  enemies. 

This  would  be  accomplished  by  a  change  in  each  generation 
of  seed,  imparted  to  it  by  pollen  possessing  the  greatest 
strength  and  enduring  qualities.  The  growing  plant  from 
such  a  seed,  having  more  resistance  to  climatic  changes,  more 
strength  of  root  to  forage  in  the  soil,  and  more  power  of  leaf 
to  elaborate  its  fruit,  would  produce,  first,  intermediate  varie- 
ties, and  finally,  occupy  the  whole  area  with  a  variety  undis- 
tinguishable  from  the  strongest  type. 

Continuous  cross-pollination  would,  with  each  generation, 
tend  to  eliminate  the  weaker  variety,  while  seedless  varieties 
would  be  destroyed  immediately. 

It  is  this  known  law  in  its  action,  in  natural  selection  and 
adaptation,  that  the  Citrus  vulgari8,v&r.  bigaradia,or  the  sour- 
bitter  orange,  may  be  regarded  as  the  primitive  type  of  many 
of  the  California  oranges.  Whether  this  is  the  germinal  and 
historic  species  from  which  the  historic  varieties  came,  or  not, 
it  is  the  natural  protective  type  to  represent  the  purpose  of 
nature  in  the  production  of  seed. 

Citrus  Vulgaris,  var.  Bigaradia. — If  nature  had  marked  this 
tree  and  fruit  with  the  sign  "  Touch  not,  taste  not,"  she  could 
not  have  fulfilled  her  purpose  in  perpetuating  its  life  better 
than  she  has  with  the  disagreeable  qualities  and  outside  aids 
with  which  she  has  surrounded  it. 

The  tree  habits  and  fruit-growth  differ  from  other  varieties 
in  many  particulars.  The  tree  is  low  for  a  standard,  rarely 
reaching  over  thirty  feet  in  height.  This  habit  guards  it  from 
the  effects  of  high  winds  and  allows  it  to  get  the  greatest 
benefit  from  the  radiated  heat,  when  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
are  spent.  By  its  low,conelike  growth  the  lower  fruit  is  produced 
having  great  strength  and  character,  allowing  a  small  compact 
cell  to  do  an  immense  work,  in  the  leaf  and  root.  The  leaf  is 
winged;  the  large  petioles  below  the  articulation  act  as  a  pro- 
tection and  help,  in  case  of  injury  to  the  blade  of  the  leaf  by 
degrees  of  heat  or  cold,  or  lack  of  nutrition  and  moisture.  The 
flowers  are  shortened,  thick  petaled,  and  diffused  with  color 
ranging  from  white  to  pink.  The  little  investigation  that  has 
3c 


34  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

been  given  to  the  study  of  the  nectaries,  and  their  sweet  con- 
tents, of  the  orange  forbids  a  comparison  with  other  varieties. 
As  in  this  family  of  plants  this  characteristic  is  a  staminal  or 
male  development,  and  by  analogy  with  the  known  habits  of 
wild  flowers  it  is  certain  that  the  sour  orange  has  large,  well- 
filled  nectaries,  aiding,  as  does  the  color  of  its  petals,  the  dis- 
tribution of  its  pollen  by  insect  agencies.  While  these  organs 
may  not  be  regarded  as  protecting  the  individual,  as  the  thorns 
and  bitter  of  the  fruit,  yet  to  the  species  and  stamina!  varieties 
it  is  one  of  the  essential  means  of  self-protection  in  pollination 
by  the  aid  of  insects.  The  fruit  is  unsightly  and  rough,  bitter 
and  acrid.  The  oil  is  pungent  and  the  fragrance  heavy,  as 
are  the  oils  of  the  leaves  and  flowers.  The  pulp  is  sour  and 
partakes  of  the  bitterness  of  the  rind.  The  oil  cells  are  con- 
cave. The  tree  carries  well-formed  thorns  distributed  to  the 
ends  of  the  branch,  and  when  ripe  strong  germinating  seeds  for 
reproduction.  Every  quality  and  development  of  the  tree  is 
protective,  and  these  staminal  qualities  have  guarded  its  life, 
under  adverse  conditions,  for  centuries  from  destruction  by 
birds,  animals,  and  mankind. 

The  characteristics  of  the  bitter  orange  are  given  in  detail, 
as  this  orange,  highly  sexualized,  and  strong  in  its  staminate 
and  pistillate  power,  is  a  type  for  all,  and  has  imparted  some 
of  its  qualities  to  all  the  varieties  of  our  orchards.  How  has 
this  orange  with  its  combination  of  disagreeable  qualities  been 
changed  and  modified,  and  some  of  its  qualities  eliminated,  to 
give  us  the  Konah,  the  St.  Michael,  and  the  Washington 
Navel  and  other  meritorious  varieties? 

Staminal  or  Male  Characteristics. — By  the  law  of  vegetable 
growth,  plants  construct  and  form  themselves;  they  increase 
and  multiply  themselves.  The  orange  multiplies  by  the  root 
growth  of  adventitious  buds,  that  eventually  form  perfect 
trees;  by  cuttings;  by  the  development  of  buds  in  the  limb, 
that  grow  to  branches  and  fruitfulness;  and  by  a  seed  embryo 
developed  in  the  ripened  fruit.  The  adventitious  bud  in  the 
root,  and  the  branch  bud  are  the  result  of  the  sex  impulse  dis- 
tributed through  the  entire  tree  structure.  The  embryo  of  the 
seed  is  the  result  of  special  adaptations  in  the  structure  of  the 
leaf.  The  perfect  development  of  the  nucleus  of  the  seed  is 
the  strength  of  the  united  reproductive  functions  of  the  entire 
tree,  and  although  the  root  and  branch  bud  are  liable  to 


CITRUS    CULTURE   IN    CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION.  35 

"  sport"  and  give  new  or  modified  varieties,  it  is  to  the  stami- 
nate  and  pistillate  modifications  that  we  must  look  for  the 
primary  changes  in  the  fruit  and  tree  habits  of  growth. 

The  least  modification  impressed  upon  the  pollen  impulse, 
and  the  receptivity  of  the  ovarian  cell,  will  change,  modify,  or 
eliminate  some  habit  of  the  tree,  or  quality  of  the  fruit,  in  the 
embryo  and  bud. 

It  is  apparent  that  in  the  bitter  orange  of  the  bigaradia,  the 
male  or  staminal  power  is  in  the  ascendancy.  The  whole  tree, 
in  all  its  manifestations,  is  suffused  by  this  power.  It  primar- 
ily affects  the  cell  of  the  leaf,  the  branch  and  root.  It  influ- 
ences the  vitality,  the  strength,  and  the  compactness  of  the 
protoplasmic  unit  in  the  pollen  germ.  It  is  manifested  in  the 
heavy  compact  limb,  the  stout  effective  thorn,  the  resistant 
and  strong  terminal  root  growth,  the  thick  leaf,  the  pungent 
oils,  the  bitter  compounds  of  the  rind  and  cells  of  the  carpel, 
and  in  the  capacity  to  resist  the  elaboration  of  sugar  from  the 
fruit  acid,  compelling  the  slow  development  of  a  strong  germi- 
native  and  generative  seed. 

Modifications  in  the  Pollen  Impulse. — Either  by  nature  or  cul- 
tivation the  strength  of  the  pollen  impulse  was  changed.  The 
staminate  or  male  power  of  the  bitter  orange  was  acted  upon, 
and  its  supremacy  destroyed.  When  that  was  accomplished, 
those  qualities  that  nature  used  to  protect  the  seed  were  either 
without  necessity  or  modified  to  the  changed  habits  of  the  new 
tree.  As  these  changes  were  produced,  the  whole  tree  was 
acted  upon  to  adjust  a  correlated  growth.  The  germ  cells  were 
changed  in  their  capacity  to  produce  a  constant  type.  The 
vegetative  functions  were  immediately  increased,  and  those 
parts  of  the  tree  impulse  put  forth  a  growth  modifying  those 
protective  growths  built  upon  the  defense  and  perpetuity  of  the 
seed.  As  an  immediate  result  of  the  loss  in  the  pollen  impulse, 
the  leaf  increased  in  surface.  The  root  cells  were  enlarged 
and  enabled  to  absorb  liquids  to  meet  an  increase  of  leaf 
evaporation.  The  whole  tree  acquired  a  greater  heat  range 
and  became  more  tropical.  These  modifications,  of  the  micro- 
scopic pollen  cell  in  its  constructive  energy  to  maintain  a  per- 
manent type,  are  seen  in  the  habits  of  growth  and  fruit  of  the 
sweet  orange  (Citrus  aurantium)  of  our  orchards. 

Citrus  Aurantium. — This  orange  is  in  such  marked  contrast 
from  the  bitter  orange  that  eminent  authorities  have  debated 


36  STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

its  origin,  and  have  considered  it  a  species  equal  with  the 
bitter  orange,  and  awarded  to  both  the  ancestry  of  whole 
groups  of  varieties.  It  carries  a  strong  though  weakened 
reproductive  function.  Its  departure  from  the  type  of  the 
bitter  orange  is  in  the  loss  of  staminal  power.  The  pistillate 
or  vegetable  growths  have  increased  by  a  readjustment  of 
plant  energy  in  the  floral  branch  which  has  weakened  the 
virility  of  the  pollen  impulse. 

When  the  two  varieties  are  compared,  the  necessity  for  a 
different  parentage  does  not  appear.  The  lines  of  modifica- 
tion follow  the  generative  impulse,  and  this  possibility  of  the 
germ  type  to  variation  gives  the  key  to  unlock  the  cause  of 
seed  and  bud  variation  in  the  great  number  of  varieties  and 
monstrosities.  The  generative  force  broken  in  the  type  unit, 
the  combinations  of  its  qualities  were  resolved  into  groups. 
The  type  unit  being  impossible,  the  group  unit  appears  in  the 
pollen,  the  seed,  and  the  bud,  giving  us  the  varieties  of  the 
orchard,  each  having  one  or  more  characteristics  of  the 
historic  type. 

The  sweet  orange  is  intermediate  between  the  bitter  orange 
and  the  seedless  varieties.  In  comparison  with  the  bitter 
orange  the  pistillate  impulse  has  displaced  the  staminate 
impulse,  which  appears  in  a  weakened  reproductive  function. 
The  vegetative  growths  have  increased;  the  leaf  is  larger  and 
has  lost  its  relative  thickness,  and  except  in  new  and  rampant 
growths  is  nearly  wingless.  The  thorns  have  lost  much  of 
their  protective  qualities  and  are  easily  changed  to  a  branch, 
and  in  rare  cases  develop  a  sessile  floral  branch  which  tips  the 
thorn  with  a  flower.  The  changes  in  the  fruit  are  marked. 
The  oil  cells  of  the  rind  are  convex,  and  have  lost  the  pungent 
oils,  becoming  more  delicate  in  fragrance.  The  same  compara- 
tive delicacy  in  the  oils  is  seen  in  the  leaf  and  the  blossoms. 
The  bitter  compounds  are  free  from  the  inner  cells  of  the  car- 
pels, and  are  only  feebly  present  in  the  rind.  The  power  to 
produce  acidity  is  impaired,  and  the  vegetative  functions  cause 
the  tree  to  shorten  its  season  of  fruit-ripening  by  the  aborted 
development  of  its  seed. 

In  this  comparison  of  the  two  varieties  of  oranges,  the  bitter 
and  the  sweet,  we  see  the  positive  staminal  qualities  of  the 
bitter  orange  are  in  the  sweet  orange  either  entirely  eliminated, 
weakened,  or  replaced  by  the  growth  of  negative  qualities  that 
could  not  be  observed  in  union  with  the  overpowering  staminal 


CITRUS   CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA— POLLINATION.  37 

qualities.  We  see  that  the  sweet  orange  does  not  represent 
the  complete  unit  of  nature,  but  consists  of  a  division  of 
qualities,  comprised  in  a  large  group  only.  However  marked 
this  change,  our  California  seedling  still  retains  the  largest 
group  of  qualities  representing  the  type  of  our  orchard 
varieties. 

Tendency  of  Orange  Culture. — The  tendency  of  orange  culture 
in  California  is  to  displace,  as  far  as  possible,  the  type  of 
varieties,  as  represented  by  the  bitter  and  sweet  orange,  and  to 
extend  the  orchard  growths  in  the  direction  of  the  variety  that 
eliminates  the  seed  growth  and  possesses  only  a  small  and 
sometimes  feeble  group  of  inherited  qualities.  This  tendency 
arises  by  a  desire  to  grow  a  sweet  orange,  and  to  a  great  extent 
is  a  misunderstanding  of  those  qualities  which,  in  combination, 
make  a  model  fruit. 

Variety  Groups. — In  the  St.  Michael  we  have  a  group  of 
qualities  that  intensified  the  staminal  impulse  of  the  sweet 
orange,  as  shown  in  the  production  of  seeds.  It  retains  the 
quality  of  late  ripening  of  the  bitter  orange,  and  possesses  a 
citrus  quality  of  great  merit  associated  with  a  heavy,  compact 
cell  growth. 

In  the  Homosassa  (or  a  variety  known  as  the  Homosassa), 
a  Florida  variety,  we  have  a  staminate  group  of  qualities, 
giving  to  the  fruit  a  high  color,  tending  to  seedlessness  and  an 
early  ripening  of  the  fruit.  As  we  should  expect  from  its 
tendency  to  depart  from  the  development  of  seed,  it  is  not 
possessed  of- the  citrus  quality  of  the  St.  Michael. 

The  Tardive,  or  Hart's  Late,  is  an  orange  late  in  ripening, 
and  with  a  feeble  or  impotent  pollination.  It  is  practically 
seedless.  The  rich  coloring  of  the  flesh,  united  with  its  slow 
maturity,  allows  this  fruit  to  be  picked  in  different  stages  of 
acidity.  When  well  colored  the  citrus  quality  is  past. 

The  Ruby  Blood  is  an  orange  with  a  fluctuating  group  of 
qualities.  It  is  deeper  flushed  than  the  Maltese  Blood,  sweet 
and  early.  It  develops  the  navel  mark  like  the  Washington 
Navel,  and  then  is  of  marked  sweetness  and  has  a  freedom  from 
seeds. 

In  the  Sweet  Seville,  an  orange  unworthy  of  cultivation  in 
California,  we  see  the  curious  phenomenon  of  a  division  of  the 
impulse  of  ripening.  The  cells  of  the  flesh  almost  exhaust  the 
acidity  by  its  elaboration  to  sugar,  while  the  cells  of  the  rind 


38  STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

are  immature  and  green.     When  the  rind  is  colored  the  fruit 
is  insipid  and  worthless. 

The  Washington  Navel,  the  great  seedless  orange  of  Cali- 
fornia, is  the  popular  variety  and  its  plantings  exceed  any 
other.  Keeping  in  view  the  natural  law,  that  a  type  must 
possess  many  qualities  to  develop  and  protect  a  seed  germ  and 
bud  integrity  to  perpetuate  itself,  and  that  these  qualities  must 
be  the  result  of  the  staminal  impulse  imparted  by  the  pollen 
to  the  perfected  seed,  and  that  a  pervading  staminal  strength 
must  be  diffused  in  the  entire  tree  structure  for  bud  growth 
and  development,  we  see  in  this  orange  from  Bahia  how  far  it 
is  possible  to  change  from  the  purpose  of  nature.  We  see  a 
small  group  of  negative  qualities  wrested  from  a  natural  type. 
The  displacement  of  its  parts  culminating  in  the  markings  at 
the  apex  of  the  fruit,  and  from  which  it  has  acquired  its  popular 
name,  is  constant.  As  an  inconstant  habit  it  is  not  uncommon. 
All  the  varieties  have  occasional  developments  of  the  navel 
mark.  It  is  often  observed  in  the  common  seedling,  and  is 
very  common  in  the  Ruby  Blood.  It  has  been  popularly  be- 
lieved, when  seen  in  other  varieties,  to  be  the  result  of  cross- 
pollination  from  the  Washington  or  some  other  variety  of 
Navel.  In  the  light  of  recent  investigations  this  is  deemed 
impossible.  Experiments  the  coming  season  will  undoubtedly 
be  made  to  substantiate  this  view.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that 
this  was  among  the  first  changes  in  the  bitter  orange,  to  destroy 
the  staminal  supremacy  of  that  fruit.  Whenever  a  fruit  car- 
ries this  mark  it  produces  less  seed  and  carries  greater  relative 
sweetness  to  its  acidity.  The  original  plants  were  received 
at  Washington  from  Bahia,  Brazil,  and  a  number  sent  by 
the  Government  to  Florida  and  California  for  cultivation. 
The  different  results  of  cultivation  and  environment  in  the 
two  areas  show  marked  tendencies  in  tree  development  and 
fruitfulness.  These  questions  arise:  Were  those  plants  of  uni- 
form excellence?  Did  the  Florida  plants  possess  the  same 
inherited  qualities  that  the  California  plants  possessed?  Did 
the  trees  received  at  Riverside  each  possess  equal  excellence  as 
a  budding  stock,  and  does  the  tree  now  in  Washington  possess 
the  average  inherited  qualities  of  those  in  California  and 
Florida?  Satisfactory  answers  to  these  questions  have  an 
important  bearing  in  solving  the  cause  of  the  different  develop- 
ments of  the  variety  as  grown  in  the  two  areas.  If  there 
were  inherent  qualities  of  variation  in  the  plants  distributed 


CITRUS   CULTURE    IN   CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION.  39 

to  the  two  areas,  the  difference  in  the  habits  of  tree  growth  and 
fruitfulness  would  be  in  part  accounted  for.  If  plants  of  known 
purity  of  strain  were  exchanged  by  the  two  sections,  Florida 
and  California,  consisting  of  well-developed  buds,  on  both  the 
sour  and  sweet  stocks,  and  planted  in  average  climatic  con- 
ditions in  the  two  areas,  should  show  a  tendency  to  qhange 
their  habits  of  growth  and  fruitfulness,  then  climatic  conditions 
would  be  considered  a  cause  sufficient  for  these  effects  and  the 
question  of  type  inheritance  be  answered.  Buds  from  the  tree 
at  Washington  distributed  to  the  two  sections  and  treated  as 
those  exchanged  by  the  two  producing  areas  would  further 
simplify  the  solution  of  inherent  qualities. 

Navel  Unfruitfulness. — The  orange-growers  of  Florida  observed 
the  Unfruitfulness  of  the  Navel,  in  that  State,  early  in  its  history. 
This  seemed  to  show  itself  in  the  young  trees  as  well  as  in  the 
older  orchards.  The  absence  of  pollen  was  noticed,  and  its 
Unfruitfulness  was  attributed  to  this  unsexed  development  of  the 
navel  bloom.  Professor  Webber,  of  the  United  States  Sub-Labo- 
ratory, was  led  to  believe  that  the  Navel  in  California  produced  an 
abundance  of  well-developed  pollen,  which  was  the  cause  of  its 
fruiting  in  this  State.  Professor  Cook  observed,  some  time  since, 
the  absence  of  pollen  in  the  Navel  bloom  in  California.  This  dis- 
covery established  the  normal  unsexed  quality  of  the  Navel,  in 
both  the  great  areas  of  Florida  and  California.  The  staminate, 
or  male,  impulse  is  aborted  and  fails  to  produce  developed  pol- 
len grains,  or  if  it  occasionally  appears,  is  a  lingering  impulse 
belonging  to  an  incidental  floral  leaf.  The  impulse  still  exists 
to  produce  a  weakened  staminal  bud  development.  As  this 
development  is  arrested  in  the  stamens  and  is  only  feebly 
present  in  the  bud,  just  sufficient  to  cause  the  growth  of  the 
floral  whorl  bearing  an  anther  without  pollen,  it  would  seem 
as  though  the  staminal  impulse  was  a  quality  pertaining  to 
the  root  and  in  nowise  dependent  on  the  vegetative  processes 
of  the  leaf,  and  in  the  Navel  it  is  as  though  nature  had  almost 
withdrawn  this  force  from  the  Navel  tree  and  dissipated  it  in  a 
vigorous  root  growth. 

When  it  was  known  that  the  Navel  was  not  self-pollinated, 
it  was  affirmed  that  it  was  fruitful  from  the  action  of  pollen 
from  other  varieties  planted  in  close  proximity.  The  proof  of 
this  was  asked  by  Professor  Webber  and  the  question  was  sub- 
mitted to  Mr.  E.  W.  Holmes  and  Mr.  J.  H.  Reed  of  Riverside, 


40  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

where  large  areas  were  planted  far  from  pollen  varieties.  These 
able  observers,  aided  by  other  horticulturists,  have  failed  to 
detect  any  difference  in  the  fruitfulness  of  the  Navel  when 
grown  far  from  other  varieties  and  outside  the  area  of  mixed 
pollination. 

Mr.  B.  M.  Lelong,  along  the  same  line  of  investigation,  says: 
"  Cross-pollination  only  tends  to  the  production  of  seeds,  and 
can  not  in  any  way  increase  the  production  of  fruit." 
Professor  Webber  says  to  the  same  effect:  "That  we  should  not 
take  means  to  secure  the  cross-pollination  of  our  Navel  trees, 
hoping  thereby  to  secure  a  larger  crop  of  fruit.  The  effect  .of 
the  cross-pollination  apparently  being  the  production  of  seedy 
fruit,  but  not  necessarily  more  fruit."  From  these  experi- 
ments and  observations  we  may  conclude  that  in  the  two  great 
areas  of  Florida  and  California,  the  Navel  will  fruit  without 
pollination,  and  that  fecundation  will  not  increase  fruitfulness 
in  either  area,  but  simply  cause  the  development  of  the  embryo 
into  rudimentary  or  perfect  seeds. 

Professor  Webber,  in  a  series  of  experiments  in  artificial 
pollination  of  the  Navel,  proved  by  them  that  some  of  the 
pistils  of  the  Navel  could  transmit  the  impulse  of  the  foreign 
pollen  to  the  ovules  of  both  the  Washington  and  the  Parson 
Navel,  and  that  the  embryo  developed  into  full  and  perfect 
seeds,  carrying  a  marked  individuality,  so  apparent  that  from 
photographs  of  these  seeds  their  form  and  appearance  indi- 
cated the  variety  of  pollen  experimented  with. 

We  can  infer  from  this  how  few  are  the  qualities  and  how 
small  the  group  is  that  remains  of  this  variety  to  represent  a 
type.  This  shows  the  Navel  to  be  very  sensitive  to  climate 
and  treatment.  The  climate  of  Florida  destroys  its  profitable 
bearing  in  that  State.  Its  fruitage,  as  a  profitable  orange  in 
Arizona,  from  information  received  from  that  Territory,  is  an 
experiment  which  indicated  that  it  will  not  be  profitable  to 
cultivate  it  there.  Its  area  of  fruitage  is  therefore  confined  to 
California,  as  the  only  area  in  the  United  States  where  the 
conditions  exist  for  its  development,  and  in  many  locations 
and  areas  in  this  State  where  planted  conditions  will  be  found 
as  unsuitable  to  its  best  growth.  Its  fruitfulness  and  habits 
are  too  sensitive  to  climatic  changes  and  treatment  to  sustain 
the  universal  confidence  reposed  in  it  as  a  variety  to  plant  in 
all  conditions  and  soils.  The  orchardist  should  be  enlisted  to 
plant  more  sexualized  varieties  to  guard  his  future  interests. 


CITRUS   CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION.  41 

Results  of  Experiments. — These  experiments  and  observations 
are  valuable,  showing — 

(1)  That  the  Washington  Navel  is  without  staminal  devel- 
opment of  pollen. 

(2)  That  it  fruits  without  the  aid  of  foreign  pollen. 

(3)  That  pollination  would  not  increase  its  fruitfulness. 

(4)  That   the   pistillate,   or  female   quality,  exists   in  the 
capacity  to  produce  seeds,  but  is  modified  and  fails  to  impress 
its  growth  and  transmit-ftrit-its  own  characteristics. 

(5)  That  the  readiness  of  the  pistil  to  respond  to  artificial 
pollination,  and  its  absence  from  seeds  where  an  abundance  of 
free  foreign  pollen  has  been  distributed,  show  a  weakness  in 
the  pistil  to  exude  the  adherent  solvents  to  attach  the  pollen 
germ  and  excite  germination,  or  a  weakness  of  the  nectaries  to 
furnish  sweets  to  attract  the  natural  insect  aids. 

(6)  That  the  capacity  of  the  Navel  to  produce  pollen  is  an 
inherent  weakness  of  the  staminal  impulse  in  the  tree  and  is 
not  dependent  upon  climatic   conditions.     This   removes  the 
Navel  from  the  varieties  that  can    be   modified  by  germinal 
changes  in  the  embryo  or  seed,  and  classifies   it   with  those 
varieties  which  will  show  modifications  by  adaptation  in  their 
bud  development  only.     That  if  the  same  inherent  bud  quali- 
ties were  possessed  by  the  parent  trees  of  Florida  and  Cali- 
fornia, unfruitfulness  of  the  Navel  variety  may  be  expected  to 
appear  in  the  orchards  of  California. 

Adaptability. — The  great  questions  of  profitable  and  success- 
ful orange  culture  in  California  are  the  adaptability  of  each 
variety  to  an  area  that  will  produce,  as  far  as  possible,  a  perfect 
fruit,  and  the  selection  of  such  groups  of  qualities  that  will 
meet  a  market  demand  during  the  season. 

That  one  principal  variety,  like  the  Washington  Navel,  can 
fulfill  these  conditions  is  impossible.  Several  well-chosen 
varieties  will  meet  the  market  demand. 

If  a  relatively  sweet  orange  for  the  early  market  is  desired 
we  should  choose  one  in  which  the  processes  of  fruit  growth 
hasten  the  period  of  ripening,  as  in  the  Washington  Navel 
and  Homosassa — one  the  great  seedless  orange  of  California, 
and  the  other  a  modified  staminal  type.  This  caution  should 
be  given  as  to  the  Navel  and  all  seedless  varieties. 

There  is  a  subtle  and  delicate  citrus  quality  that  must  be 
associated  in  all  the  qualities  of  an  orange.  It  can  only  be 


42  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

described  by  saying  that  it  appeals  to  the  intellectual  percep- 
tions, as  that  natural  goodness  and  excellence  inherent  in  the 
choice  products  of  nature.  This  can  be  eliminated  from  the 
orange  and  render  the  fruit  insipid  and  valueless.  We  must 
be  careful  in  the  selections  of  stock  and  bud  that  we  draw 
toward  this  noble  fruit  and  gift  of  nature,  the  happy  union  of 
staminate  and  blended  qualities  that  awards  this  halo  of 
ambrosial  excellence. 

If  we  select  the  late  varieties — the  St.  Michael  and  the 
Tardive — we  will  have  in  the  first  a  strong  late  orange,  and  in 
the  last  a  seedless  orange,  both  of  good  qualities.  Could  we 
add  a  seedling,  a  medium  early,  sweet,  with  few  seeds,  and  a 
fine  citrus  quality,  we  will  have  oranges  that  will  supplement 
the  Navel  with  comparative  excellence  and  meet  all  market 
demands. 

With  the  varieties  modified  and  adapted  to  the  best  climatic 
areas  to  produce  the  best  fruit,  and  perpetuated  in  J^ud  and 
seed  by  scientific  direction  to  respond  to  normal  productiveness, 
growth,  and  longevity,  a  foundation  will  be  laid  to  rear  a  great 
and  glorious  State. 

PERIOD  OF  FRUITFULNESS. 

There  seems  to  be  quite  prevalent  a  belief  or  impression  that 
the  period  of  profitable  production  of  the  Washington  Navel 
orange  ceases  after  the  seventh  or  eighth  year. 

*"It  is  not  claimed  that  our  trees  are  shortlived,  but  that 
their  period  of  fruitfulness  is  to  be  short,  and  that  the  budded 
varieties  differ  materially  from  the  seedling  in  this  regard. 
But  has  such  a  difference  been  shown  to  exist  in  their  actual 
periods  of  fruitfulness?  Let  us  make  a  comparison.  In  the 
first  place  the  Navel  and  seedling  are  both  upon  the  same  root? 
and  therefore  start  out  in  life  upon  the  same  footing.  For  the 
first  seven  or  eight  years  the  seedling  tree  draws  upon  its  plot 
of  ground  for  such  elements  of  plant-food  only  as  will  produce 
growth  of  leaf,  limb,  and  root,  asking  for  no  fruit-forming 
material,  as  it  has  made  no  fruit.  It  then  begins  to  use  spar- 
ingly of  its  reserve  materials,  and  within  the  next  seven  or 
eight  years  it  will  so  nearly  have  exhausted  the  fruit-forming 

*C.  E.  Bemis,  in  essay  read  at  Farmers'  Institute,  at  Covina,  November. 
1899. 


CITRUS    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA — FRUITFULNESS.  43 

. 

elements  in  the  natural  soil  that  it  no  longer  produces  profit- 
able crops,  they  being  small  in  quantity  and  inferior  in  quality. 
Now,  in  the  case  of  the  Navel  tree,  you  have  taken  a  bud  from 
a  precocious  variety  of  tree,  and  by  uniting  it  with  a  seedling 
root  have  produced  the  most  ravenous  feeder  of  the  citrus 
family,  and  also  the  most  perfect  machine  for  making  superb 
fruit  yet  known  to  the  business.  It  is  not  content  with  the 
slow,  plodding  habit  of  the  seedling  tree,  but  even  in  its  second 
year  begins  to  dig  up  the  necessary  materials  for  constructing 
fruit,  and  it  will  continue  to  do  so  in  an  increased  ratio  until 
about  the  same  length  of  time  occupied  in  the  process  of  the 
seedling,  when  it  too  will  have  used  up  so  much  of  its  available 
material  that  it  can  no  longer  increase  its  output,  the  differ- 
ence, if  any,  in  the  time  occupied  being  easily  explained  by 
the  superior  texture  and  greater  amount  of  nutriment  con- 
tained in  the  Navel  over  the  seedling  fruit." 

The  Age  of  Citrus  Trees.* 

APPARENT  DETERIORATION  IN  OLD   NAVEL  ORCHARDS — DUE  TO 
IMPROPER  MANAGEMENT. 

The  questions  I  here  present  are,  then :  Is  there  a  lack  of 
vitality  in  the  tree  as  it  grows  old  ?  If  there  appears  to  be, 
what  is  the  cause,  and  can  we  remove  it  ? 

I  find  that  there  is  a  radical  difference  in  the  condition  of 
the  oldest  groves.  Some  are  marvelously  beautiful  and  pro- 
ductive, and  others  are  light  of  color  and  scant  of  fruit.  In 
some  fairly  good  orchards  there  are  sections  in  which  the  trees 
are  unhealthy,  and  this  to  an  extent  to  reduce  the  yield  to  ah 
unsatisfactory  figure.  The  fact  that  the  good  and  bad  orchards, 
and  the  large  number  which  are  neither  very  good  nor  very 
bad,  are  located  under  practically  identical  conditions  of  soil, 
climate,  and  irrigation  facilities,  is  proof  enough  that  the  cause 
of  unsatisfactory  conditions  of  tree  and  product  is  not  due  to 
any  constitutional  weakness  of  the  tree,  but  to  differing 
methods  of  treatment. 


*Extracts  from  report  of  E.  W.  Holmes,  of  Riverside,  who,  at  the  request 
of  the  Riverside  Horticultural  Club,  made  an  investigation  regarding  the 
alleged  tendency  of  the  Washington  Navel  orange  tree  to  fall  off  in  product- 
iveness with  the  approach  of  age.  In  "Press  and  Horticulturist,"  January 
6,  1900.  ' 


44  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

I  am  thoroughly  convinced  that  the  tree  is  above  the  average 
in  vitality,  and  that  there  is  no  justification  for  the  belief  that 
it  is  to  become  nonproductive  as  it  grows  old. 

It  is  a  fact  which  cannot  be  denied  that  many  of  the  oldest 
orchards  are  yielding  light  crops,  and  that  their  foliage  lacks 
that  dark  rich  green  characteristic  of  the  thoroughly  healthy 
orange  tree.  But  I  am  satisfied  that  the  fault  is  not  with  the 
tree,  but  with  the  owner.  It  is  true  that  the  young  bearing 
orchards  average  better  crops  than  do  the  old  ones.  But  it  is 
also  true  that  the  very  best  trees,  the  richest  foliaged  and 
heaviest  bearing,  are  the  oldest  in  the  valley.  These  facts 
seem  to  point  clearly  to  causes  outside  the  tree  itself  for  the 
unsatisfactory  condition  of  many  orchards;  and,  having  satis- 
fied myself  that  many  of  the  oldest  orchards  are  the  best,  I 
have  thought  it  well  to  endeavor  to  discover  why  it  is  that 
orchards  adjacent  to  those  which  are  most  healthy  and  prolific 
are  sometimes  either  a  burden  to  their  owners,  or,  at  best, 
return  but  very  moderate  dividends. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  that  to  three  or  four  causes  is  due  the 
failure  of  many  groves.  I  do  not  mean  absolute  failure  in  all 
cases,  but  failure  as  compared  to  the  best.  I  do  not  think  the 
average  orchardist  will  admit  his  fault  in  the  matter.  I  find 
a  majority  deny  conditions  in  their  groves  which  are  apparent 
enough  to  an  unprejudiced  investigator.  I  am  convinced  that: 

First — We  do  not  feed  the  trees  sufficiently.  The  Navel 
bears  every  year,  and  sooner  exhausts  the  soil  of  the  essential 
elements  than  such  trees  as  rest  from  time  to  time. 

Second — We  do  not  stir  the  soil  to  a  sufficient  depth,  nor  do 
we  take  all  the  pains  we  should  to  pulverize  it  finely.  In  rich, 
red,  clayey  soil,  most  prized  because  it  produces  the  highest 
colored  and  best  keeping  fruit,  there  is  invariably  a  tendency 
to  form  a  crust  of  somewhat  impervious  soil  below  the  depth 
regularly  reached  by  the  plow  and  cultivator.  This  is  hardly 
"hardpan,"  such  as  is  found  in  some  sections.  It  will  allow 
the  roots  to  penetrate,  and  softens  into  cultivable  shape  if 
irrigation  is  long  continued.  But  it  is  sufficiently  hard  to  pre- 
vent the  penetration  of  ordinary  irrigation,  and  to  prevent  the 
soil  from  receiving  the  full  benefit  of  the  soluble  fertilizers 
applied.  It  prevents  the  aeration  of  the  soil,  without  which 
the  essential  process  of  nitrification  is  impossible.  In  nine  out 
of  ten  of  the  orchards  examined  I  find  evidence  that  its 


CITRUS    CULTURE   IN   CALIFORNIA — FRUITFULNESS.  45 

presence  has  rendered  partially  useless  much  of  the  fertilizer, 
water,  and  labor  used. 

Third — The  disposition  is  to  economize  by  delaying  the  ap- 
plication of  water  in  the  hot  season  until  the  tree  plainly 
manifests  its  need.  This  policy,  at  least  in  a  soil  like  that  of 
Riverside  and  Redlands,  is  a  mistake.  I  admit  that  by  the 
use  of  manures  which  lighten  the  soil  it  can  be  made  to  absorb 
and  retain  water  and  fertilizer,  and  that  such  treatment  is  a 
valuable  aid  where  water  is  scant;  but  I  find  the  best  results 
obtained  where  no  attention  is  paid  to  the  theory  of  infrequent 
irrigation,  and  water  is  regularly  supplied. 

A  fact  to  which  I  wish  to  call  your  attention  is  that  in  every 
one  of  the  healthy  and  productive  old  orchards  these  three 
points  of  treatment  are  faithfully  attended  to,  while  I  find  not 
one  of  the  ordinary  or  inferior  orchards  in  which  either  one  or 
two,  and  sometimes  all  three,  are  disregarded.  I  do  not  mean 
that  they  are  intentionally  ignored  in  the  latter  class.  The 
owner  hasn't  the  means  to  properly  manure  his  orchard.  He 
follows  the  conventional  method  of  cultivating,  and  would  be 
surprised  if  one  should  intimate  that  his  work  was  lacking  in 
thoroughness.  He  runs  water  in  abundance,  and  often  enough, 
but  the  shallow  stirring  of  strong  soil  prevents  its  proper  pene- 
tration. It  has  been  a  surprise  to  myself  to  find  that  I  have 
failed  in  thoroughness,  and  I  am  sure  that  if  others  shall  exam- 
ine they  will  find  that  there  is  need  of  improvement.  Old  orange 
groves  will  not  be  profitable  unless  we  use  intelligent  methods. 

Where  unhealthy  trees  exist  because  of  a  shallow  soil,  or 
where  the  rise  of  surface  water  has  made  the  locality  unfit  for 
citrus  fruits,  or  where  the  frost  too  often  does  injury,  what  I 
have  said  does  not  apply.  Such  conditions  it  is  impossible  to 
overcome. 

No  man  can  study  the  condition  of  our  older  orchards  with- 
out having  proof  supplied  of  the  truth  of  the  scriptures  to  the 
effect  that  "To  him  who  hath  shall  be  given. "  Men  of  wealth 
who  dare  to  invest  heavily  in  fertilizers  every  season,  and 
whose  orchards  want  neither  for  intelligent  labor  nor  for  irri- 
gation, are  the  ones  whose  dividends  are  assured  and  regular. 
Handicapped  with  a  heavy  mortgage,  the  intelligent  and 
shrewd  orchardist  may  be  forced  to  try  to  extract  profit  from 
his  grove  with  the  least  possible  annual  expenditure,  and  may 
make  thorough  cultivation  and  faithful  attention  serve  fairly 


46  STATE   BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

well  with  a  scant  supply  of  fertilizer.  But  he  cannot  attain 
the  results  achieved  by  him  who  adds  to  these  methods  the 
ability  to  furnish  the  fertilizing  elements  needed. 

I  have  pointed  out  the  fact  that  certain  old  orchards  have 
maintained  health  and  productiveness,  while  others,  having 
equal  if  not  superior  natural  conditions,  have  proved  either 
only  moderately  profitable  or  a  source  of  loss  to  their  owners. 
Many  of  the  less  successful  groves  have  not  apparently  been 
neglected,  and,  it  may  be,  have  failed  to  use  onJy  one  of  the 
three  essentials  to  success.  It  is  possible  that  the  calling  of 
the  attention  of  their  growers  to  the  practices  which  have  won 
most  marked  success  may  lead  them  to  appreciate  the  need  of 
improving  their  methods,  instead  of  drifting  along  in  the 
easier,  conventional  way  which  is  common.  Young  orchards 
generally  pay  while  the  soil  is  virgin  and  its  abuse  has  not 
begun  to  affect  the  product.  It  will  be  well  if  the  conceit 
which  has  always  characterized  the  residents  of  each  young 
fruit  settlement  shall  be  eliminated  before  its  orchardists  dis- 
cover that  to  maintain  the  reputation  of  their  horticultural 
youth  there  is  need  of  constant  and  faithful  labor,  and  a  gen- 
erous feeding  of  the  soil  before  its  best  elements  shall  have  been 
extracted.  Providence  has  given  to  each  orchardist,  in  the 
natural  fertility  of  his  soil,  a  little  capital  with  which  to  work. 
He  cannot  draw  upon  it  without  loss,  and  permanent  pros- 
perity depends  upon  maintaining  it.  It  is  because  this  is  gone 
that  we  hear  of  the  decadence  of  the  older  orange  trees,  and  to 
nothing  else.  The  pioneers  have  had  some  expensive  expe- 
riences, and  it  will  be  well  if  the  later  comers  shall  benefit  by 
them.' 

General  statements  regarding  my  conclusions  may  have  more 
force  if  I  give  brief  reference  to  the  methods  of  successful  growers. 
There  are  few  orchardists  in  Southern  California  who  are  better 
known  for  the  quality  of  their  fruit  than  W.  H.  Backus.  Though 
he  has  never  aimed  to  unduly  force  his  trees,  he  has  had  uni- 
form success  in  securing  regular  crops  of  fine-textured  fruit. 
His  orchard  is  one  of  the  very  oldest,  and  his  trees  have  the 
disadvantage  of  having  been  planted  only  a  rod  apart.  The 
soil  is  heavy.  If  there  were  anything  in  the  claim  of  the 
deterioration  of  the  Navel  tree  it  should  find  justification  here. 
And  yet  the  trees  are  generally  fine  in  color,  and  always  well 
loaded  with  fruit.  What  methods  have  maintained  the  uniform 


CITRUS    CULTURE    IN    CALIFORNIA — FRUITFULNESS.  47 

excellence  of  tnis  orchard?  Mr.  Backus  has  always  used  fer- 
tilizers generously,  always  given  from  a  ton  to  a  ton  and  a  half 
to  the  acre.  He  says  he  made  the  mistake  of  using  a  smaller 
quantity  than  usual  last  year,  and  applied  it  too  late,  and  is 
satisfied  he  is  a  loser  by  so  doing.  He  thinks  it  is  a  serious 
mistake  to  wait  until  the  trees  show  need  before  giving  water. 
To  allow  the  soil  to  bake  once  is  to  make  all  subsequent  irri- 
gation less  effective.  He  has  always  cultivated  deeply,  and 
considers  this  one  of  the  fundamental  causes  of  his  success. 
Mr.  Backus  has  never  failed  of  good  results  with  any  of  the 
high-grade  manufactured  fertilizers,  and  he  will  continue  to 
use  them. 

Another  old  Navel  orchard  is  that  of  Ernest  Meacham.  He 
has  five  acres  of  trees,  twenty-two  years  of  age,  planted  a  rod 
apart.  He  has  attained  results  so  much  superior  to  some  of  his 
neighbors  that  his  methods  are  worth  considering.  Having  con- 
siderable livestock,  he  uses  his  stable  manure  by  making  a  dead 
furrow  across  the  regular  irrigating  lands,  into  which  he  puts 
it  while  fresh,  three  to  five  feet  to  the  tree,  immediately  cover- 
ing it  with  the  plow.  In  the  course  of  the  year  he  gets  over 
the  whole  place  in  this  way.  This  sends  the  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter deep  with  the  rains  and  irrigating  water,  and  the  soil  is 
made  mellow  by  its  presence.  In  the  late  winter  he  applies 
ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  guano,  with  which  is  mixed  three  per 
cent  of  potash  and  five  per  cent  of  sulphate  of  iron.  He  irri- 
gates thoroughly  every  thirty  days  in  summer,  and  his  appli- 
ances of  his  own  devising  for  deep  furrowing  and  thorough 
cultivation  close  up  to  the  trees,  while  his  team  walks  in  the 
center  of  the  land,  are  worth  examining.  These  trees  are 
exceptionally  fine  in  color,  and  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
fruit  are  remarkable.  There  isn't  a  sick  tree  in  the  lot,  except 
one  or  two  attacked  by  gophers.  For  several  years  this  five- 
acre  orchard  has  yielded  between  three  and  four  thousand 
boxes  of  oranges,  running  perhaps  ninety  per  cent  fancy. 
This  orchard  most  effectually  demonstrates  the  vigor  and  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  old  Navel  tree  when  properly  cared  for. 

Everybody  knows  the  Barny  orchard,  the  largest  of  the  origi- 
nal Navel  orchards.  It  has  always  had  the  best  of  care,  and  if 
anything  has  been  over-fertilized  at  times,  and  yet,  in  spite  of 
the  harm  the  terminal  branches  got  from  the  April  frost  of  two 
years  ago,  is  marvelously  beautiful  to-day,  with  its  dark  green 


48  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

foliage  and  heavy  crop  of  splendid  fruit.  It  has  water  regu- 
larly, and  is  always  thoroughly  cultivated. 

I  might  multiply  such  evidences  of  the  effect  of  proper  treat- 
ment, in  every  one  of  which  the  three  points  I  have  referred  to 
are  those  in  which  they  differ  from  the  less  successful. 

It  is,  however,  proper  to  give  a  type  of  another  class  of  orch- 
ards in  which  success  has  been  attained  where  no  special  effort 
at  ideal  cultivation  and  irrigation  has  been  attempted.  Such  a 
one  is  that  of  D.  P.  Chapman.  It  is  an  old  orchard  of  ten  acres 
and  has  yielded  from  four  thousand  to  seven  thousand  boxes 
annually  for  many  years.  I  can  find  no  other  cause  for  its 
superior  and  constant  yield  but  the  fact  that  its  owner  never 
loses  a  chance  to  apply  any  kind  of  manures,  natural  or  arti- 
ficial, which  he  believes  good.  Such  applications,  with  average 
treatment,  as  regards  soil  and  water  use,  have  proven  a  good 
investment.  If  there  is  a  criticism  due  here,  it  is  that  excessive 
use  of  nitrogen  may  have  caused  rather  more  than  the  usual 
•scab  among  the  trees. 

Another  experience,  valuable  as  illustrating  the  effect  of  the 
best  treatment  upon  a  comparatively  young  Navel  orchard 
that  had  suffered  from  the  March  frost,  is  that  of  A.  P.  John- 
son. In  spite  of  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  bearing 
wood  had  been  removed,  a  heavy  application  of  fertilizer,  prop- 
erly applied,  brought  not  only  a  very  profitable  crop  the  follow- 
ing winter,  but  with  a  later  generous  application,  a  crop  the 
present  season,  which,  for  uniform  excellence,  it  is  hard  to 
excel.  Mr.  Johnson's  old  seedlings,  upon  which  he  has  put, 
perhaps,  seventy-five  cents  worth  of  fertilizer  to  the  tree,  appear 
to  have  twenty  to  twenty-five  boxes  of  fruit  each  at  the  present 
time. 

But  the  transforming  effect  of  heavy  fertilizing  is  more 
conclusively  shown  in  the  old  Kearn  place,  which,  starved  and 
neglected  in  past  years,  had  a  crop  last  season  not  worth  the 
cost  of  picking,  while  to-day,  as  the  result  of  expending  ninety 
cents  to  the  tree  for  fertilizer  last  year,  there  is  a  transforma- 
tion in  appearance  and  a  crop  which  will  give  a  handsome  divi- 
dend. I  mention  this  not  as  directly  bearing  upon  the  main 
topic  we  are  discussing,  but  as  showing  the  effect  of  generous 
expenditures  in  restoring  the  health  of  an  orange  grove.  The 
cure  for  tree  weakness  and  nonproduction  is  simply  proper  tree 
food  in  ample  quantity,  timely  irrigation,  and  deep  and  thorough 
cultivation. 


THE    ORANGE   IN    CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 


49 


THE    ORANGE. 


THE  SWEET  ORANGE. 

Citrus  aurantium  dulces,  Linn. 

The  sweet  orange  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Aurantiacze, 
and  the  origin  of  the  different  members  of  this  citrus  family 


2.... 


A.  Compourfd  unifoliate  leaf  of  the  orange  (Cit- 
rus aurantium).  1.  Point  of  union,  marked  by  ail 
articulation:  2.  Petiole,  winged  on  either  side; 
3.  Lamina;  4.  Flowering  branch  of  Citrus  bigaradia; 
Sand  6.  The  fruit;  7.  Flower  complete;  8.  Pistil; 
9.  Transverse  section  of  ovary.  (After  Haldane.) 


is  extremely  doubtful,  having  been  cultivated  from  a  remote 
period  of  antiquity,  but  is   supposed  to  belong  originally  to 
China  and  India. 
4c 


50 


STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 


The  flowers  are  white,  the  leaves  lanceolate  or  oblong.  The 
petiole  is  not  so  markedly  winged  as  in  the  bitter-sour  orange, 
but  is  always  present  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  The  fruit  is 
generally  an  oblate  sphere,  pyriform  or  elliptical,  of  a  golden 
color  when  ripe,  and  full  of  delicate  pulp  and  sweet,  refreshing 
juice. 

SEEDLINGS. — Primary   rovt   stout,  tapering,  twisted,  furnished  after  a 

time  with  a  few  lateral  rootlets,  longitudinally  ridged  and  furrowed,  at 

least  when  dry. 

Hypocotyl  subter- 
ranean, short,  stout, 
curved,  longitudi- 
nally ridged,  color- 
less, 2-3.5  mm.  long. 
Cotyledons  two, 
opposite  or  fre- 
quently alternate, 
colorless,  fleshy,  not 
leavingthe  testa, but 
very  often  com- 
pressed and  shape- 
less, owing  to  the 
presence  of  two, 
three,  or  four  em- 
bryos in  the  seed. 

Stem  woody,  erect, 
terete  (striate  when 
dried  and  somewhat 
twisted),  pale  green, 
glabrous  or  minute- 
ly pubescent;  first 
internode  2.5-4  cm. 
long;  second,  and 
sometimes  the  third 
and  fourth  undevel- 
oped, or  the  third  3 
mm.  and  the  fourth 
2.25  mm.  long. 

Leaves      simple, 

Seedlings  of  Citrus  aurantium  dulces — yearling  plants.          cauline,     alternate, 

exstipulate,     petio- 

late,  evergreen,  shining,  coriaceous,  thickly  dotted  with  immersed  glands, 

strongly  odoriferous  when  bruised,  glabrous. 

Nos.  1  and  2.    Generally  opposite  by  the  nondevelopment  of  the  internode, 

more  or   less    obliquely  obcordate  and  appearing  deformed  very  shortly 

petiolate. 

Nos.  3  and  4  (in  specimen  examined).    Alternate,  elliptic,  obtuse,  obso- 

letely  serrate,  minutely  emarginate,  with  alternate,  ascending,  lateral  nerves ; 

petioles  channeled  above,  narrowly  winged,  articulated  with  the  stem  below 

and  the  leaf  above. 

Ultimate  leaves  oblong-ovate,  acuminate,  emarginate,  minutely  and  obso- 

letely  serrate,  pellucidly  punctate,  with  a  thin  marginal  line  of  larger  glands ; 

lamina  articulated  with  the  winged  petiole,  which  is  ovate  in  outline,  with  a 


THE   ORANGE    IN   CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES.  51 

short,  stout,  not  winged  base.— SIR  JOHN  LUBBOCK,  "  Contribution  to  Our 
Knowledge  of  Seedlings,"  Vol.  I,  1892. 

ORANGE  TYPES-VARIETIES. 

(a)  SEEDLINGS*  that  have  lost  their  parental  characteristics 
through  degeneration; 

(b)  MODIFIED  SEEDLINGS,  types  produced  by  chance,  through 
natural  intermixing  of  pollen,  with  characteristics  unlike  their 
parent,  remaining  constant  but  with  tendency  to  revert  to  the 
mother  type; 

~(c)  HYBRIDS. 

(a)  SEEDLING  TYPES,  produced  by  chance. 

MAYBERRY'S  PREMIER. — Originated  at  San  Gabriel. 
COOPER'S  SEEDLING.— Originated  at  Santa  Barbara. 
KERCHEVAL'S  QUEEN. — Originated  at  Los  Angeles. 
BALDWIN'S  FAVORITE. — Originated  at  San  Gabriel. 
NICARAGUAN. — Originated  at  Los  Angeles. 
TAHITI. — Originated  at  Los  Angeles. 
I  XL. — Originated  at  Los  Angeles. 
EUREKA. — Originated  at  Los  Angeles. 
ACAPULCO. — Originated  at  Los  Angeles. 

(6)  MODIFIED  TYPES,  produced  by  chance,  the  embryo  in 
the  seed  having  been  influenced  by  natural  cross-pollina- 
tion and  remaining  constant. 

WOLFSKILL'S  BEST. — Originated  at  Los  Angeles;  fruit  some- 
what flattened  and  medium  to  large,  deep  orange  red,  fine 
grain  and  pulp;  ripens  early. 

KONAH. — Originated  at  Los  Angeles.  Fruit  large,  rough  and 
thick-skinned;  tree  very  thorny;  ripens  early. 

JOPPA. — Originated  at  San  Gabriel.  Fruit  medium  to  large, 
oblong,  and  uniform. 

WILSON'S  BEST  (syn.,  Lake  Vineyard). — Originated  at  San 
Gabriel.  Fruit  medium  to  large;  tree  handsome  grower. 

(c)  HYBRIDS. 

Navel  Type. 

WASHINGTON  NAVEL. — This  variety  is  the  most  widely  known 
and  is  properly  styled  the  "  king  of  oranges."  The  fruit  has 

*The  term  "  seedling  "  is  applied  to  any  type  of  orange  reared  indiscrimi- 
nately from  seed. 


52  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

proved  of  such  exceptional  quality  and  is  in  such  general  favor 
that  its  production  overtops  all  other  varieties. 

The  name  "  Washington  Navel "  was  applied  to  this  variety 
in  California,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  "Australian  Navel,"  a 
shy  bearer  with  a  similar  peculiar  mark,  and  because  it  was 
received  from  Washington,  having  been  imported  from  Brazil 
by  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  It  was  for  a  time  called 
"Bahia"  (place  of  origin),  also  "Riverside  Navel,"  denoting 
the  locality  where  the  first  trees  were  planted,  and  which  are 
the  parents  of  all  trees  of  this  variety  in  the  State. 

The  first  orange  shipments  consist  of  the  Washington  Navel, 
which  constitute  over  one  half  of  the  output,  but  it  is  shipped 
later  in  the  season,  extending  into  June  and  July. 

Fruit  large,  highly  colored,  solid  and  heavy,  skin  smooth 
and  of  a  very  fine  texture,  very  juicy,  highly  flavored,  with 

melting  pulp,  seedless  (except 
occasionally — evidently  the  re- 
sult of  pollen  influence).  Tree 
semi-dwarf,  good  and  prolific 
bearer,  medium  thorny,  a  rapid 
grower  and  early  bearer.  Fo- 
liage deep  green,  heavy  and 
compact,  leaves  large  and  prom- 
inently winged.  Branches  deep 

First  picture  of  the  Navel  orange  on 

record.  green  and  smooth,  inclined  to 

roundish.     Stock  sturdy,  with 

well-balanced  limbs.  The  blossoms  are  double  (having  a 
secondary  blossom  within),  rarely  have  any  pollen.  Ripens 
early.  * 

Most  of  the  early  publications  of  Brazil  mention  the  Lavanja 
de  ombigo — Navel  orange.  The  first  illustration  of  the  Navel 
orange  appears  in  a  volume,  "  Table  XVI — Historise  Naturalis 
de  Arboribus  et  Fructibus,  Libri  Decem.  Johannis  Jonstoni, 
Medicine  Doctoris.  Francofurti  o/m,  MDCLXJI"  ("  The  Natu- 
ral History  of  Trees  and  Fruits,  Ten  Books.  By  John  John- 
son, Doctor  of  Medicine.  Frankfort  on  Main,  1662"),  referred 
to  as  Aurantium  fcetiferum.  The  accompanying  illustration, 
photographed  from  the  original  plate  in  the  library  of  Prof. 
Edw.  L.  Greene,  of  the  Catholic  University  of  America,  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  was  secured  through  the  kindness  of  Wm. 
A.  Taylor,  Assistant  U.  S.  Pomologist,  to  whom  the  writer  is 


54 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


indebted  for  assistance.  Although  no  description  of  the  Navel 
orange  appears  in  the  text,  this  is  the  earliest  reference  known. 
M.  George  Gallesio,  Auditor  of  the  State  Council  and  Sub- 
Prefect  of  Savona,  in  a  treatise  on  the  citrus  family,  written 
early  in  this  century,  makes  mention  of  a  variety  of  orange, 
double  flowered.  The  author  describes  the  Aurantium  fceti- 
ferum  as  presenting  a  superfoetation,  an  imperfect  development 
of  many  germs  inclosed  within  another  or  united  under  the 
envelope  or  an  exterior  germ.  Those  descriptions  undoubtedly 

refer  to  the  Navel  orange- 
Thus  it  would  seem  that  the 
navel  formation  is  of  great 
antiquity.  The  navel  mark 
shows  in  the  fruit  as  early  as 
it  can  be  examined,  which  in 
its  development  the  navel  is 
itself  a  secondary  orange,  in 
some  specimens  having  a  dis- 
tinct skin  surrounding  it. 

History  of  the  Introduction  of 
This  King  of  Citrus  Fruits. — 
*"  During  the  Civil  War  a 
woman  who  had  been  sojourn- 
ing in  Brazil  told  Mr.  Saunders 
that  she  knew  of  an  orange  at 
Bahia,  Brazil,  that  excelled 
any  other  variety  she  had  ever 
tasted  or  heard  of.  He  sent 
there  and  had  twelve  trees 
propagated  by  budding  and 
sent  to  him,  in  1870.  They  all  grew,  and  some  of  them  are 
yet  bearing  fruit  in  the  orange  house  at  Washington.  None  of 
the  original  trees  was  sent  out  to  the  public,  but  all  were  there 
used  as  stock  from  which  to  propagate  by  budding.  Many  young 
trees  were  budded  from  them  and  sent  to  Florida  and  California. 
Early  in  1873  Mrs.  Tibbets  was  in  Washington,  just  previous  to 
going  to  her  new  home  at  Riverside,  California.  Mr.  Saunders 
offered  to  give  her  some  trees  of  this  new  and  untried  orange  and 
she  most  gladly  accepted  two  trees.  She  and  her  aged  husband 
planted  them  beside  their  cottage,  and  when  they  bore  fruit  it  was 
*Prof.  H.  E.  Van  Deman,  in  "Rural  New  Yorker,"  June,  1899. 


Mr.  Wm.  Saunders,  of  Washington,  D.  C., 
to  whom  the  world  is  indebted  for  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Washington  Navel  orange. 


THE   ORANGE   IN   CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES.  55 

found  to  be  equal  to  the  most  extravagant  reports  of  its  quality 
and  size,  and  the  trees  were  very  prolific  in  that  section.  The 
trees  sent  to  Florida  produced  equally  good  fruit,  but  they  did 
not  bear  well.  This  is  why  many  fruit-growers  thought  there 
was  more  than  one  variety  in  the  lot  of  trees  imported  from 
Brazil,  but  the  difference  in  fruitfulness  came  from  climatic 
causes,  as  has  been  most  thoroughly  proved  by  many  years  of 
experience  in  all  the  orange-growing  sections  of  the  country. 
It  has  also  been  said  that  there  was  only  one  tree  at  the  Tib- 
bets  place,  and  that  it  was  unlike  the  other  trees  bearing  the 


LUTHER  C.  TIBBETS  AND  WIFE. 
The  parents  of  the  Washington  Navel  orange  industry  in  California. 

same  name.  But  this  is  a  mistake,  for  I  have  gathered  and 
eaten  fruit  from  these  two  trees  and  had  their  history  direct 
from  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Tibbets,  also  from  Mr.  Saunders.  Besides, 
I  have  critically  examined  the  trees  of  Bahia  in  bearing  in 
many  parts  of  Florida  and  California,  and  compared  them  and 
their  fruit  in  many  ways,  and  found  them  to  be  identical, 
except  in  variations  caused  by  climate,  soil,  and  culture.  The 
orange  is  truly  seedless  and  utterly  devoid  of  pollen,  and  the 
pistils  are  also  deformed  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  seed  pro- 
duction from  the  pollen  of  other  varieties  an  impossibility, 
except  in  a  few  very  rare  cases  in  which  seeds  have  been  found. 
It  is  this  malformation  of  the  pistils  or  embryonic  ovaries  that 


56  STATE    BOARD   OF   HORTICULTURE. 

causes  that  peculiar  umbilical  mark,  either  large  or  small, 
which  gives  the  name  '  navel,'  by  which  this  orange  is  com- 
monly known." 

*uThe  first  fruit  brought  to  general  notice  was  at  a  citrus  fair 
in  Riverside,  in  1879,  where  it  received  prompt  recognition. 
From  that  time  forward  its  propagation  was  rapid,  until  to-day 
vast  areas  are  devoted  to  its  culture.  The  trees  originally 
imported  from  Brazil  still  stand  in  the  greenhouses  at  Wash- 
ington, but  those  that  were  sent  out  to  the  growers  of  the  citrus- 
producing  sections  of  the  United  States  were  small  stocks  budded 
directly  from  the  imported  ones.  It  is  worthy  of  most  careful 
note  that  the  valuable  qualities  which  make  the  Navel  the 


Most  remarkable  orange  "  sports  "  on  record.  A  "  Navel "  with  a  perfect  orange  outside 
its  fruit-bud;  and  one  with  a  perfect  orange,  skin  and  all,  inside  it. 

greatest  of  oranges  developed  in  their  entirety  only  upon  the 
Pacific  Coast.  The  peculiarity  from  which  this  orange  derived 
its  name  is  a  navel  seal,  or  trademark,  of  great  importance 
to  its  grower — an  unmistakable  protuberance  at  the  apex  or 
blossom  end  of  the  fruit,  not  unlike  the  navel  of  the  human 
body.  In  a  seeming  effort  to  break  forth  from  its  confinement, 
the  bud  often  takes  the  form  (especially  in  late  blooming)  of  a 
diminutive  orange.  This  mark  varies  greatly  in  size  from  a 
dim  outline  to  oftentimes  a  monstrosity,  readily  distinguished 
in  the  accompanying  engravings  from  nature.  Besides  these 
normal  developments  specimens  are  sometimes  found  with  a 
section  of  the  fruit  in  a  raised  or  sunken  panel,  with  pro- 
*  Herman  H.  Monroe,  in  "  Land  of  Sunshine,"  May,  1899. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 


57 


nounced  difference  in  coloring.  While  some  are  disposed  to 
believe  that  through  its  golden-bronze  skin  shines  the  lighter 
blood  of  a  remote  ancestry,  others  in  turn  find  an  excuse  for 
its  sporting  in  the  theory  that  adjacent  trees  bearing  fruit  of  a 
different  variety  may  by  pollination  stamp  upon  it  the  insignia 
of  their  species — for  the  Navel  is  more  susceptible  to  change 
than  any  other  type.  From  reports  of  the  United  States  con- 
suls in  the  orange-growing  countries  of  the  entire  world,  it  is 
clear  that  in  no  other  country  on  the  face  of  the  globe  is  the 


Original  Washington  Navel  orange  trees,  at  the  Tibbets  homestead, 
Riverside,  Cal. 

culture  of  the  orange  so  successful  as  in  the  Golden  State, 
where  the  climatic  conditions  and  soil  are  so  well  adapted  to 
its  perfection  of  character.  There  are  two  colossal  old  trees, 
*  Los  Migueletes,'  in  Mairena  del  Alcon  of  Seville,  which  are 
recorded  to  have  borne  each  thirty-eight  thousand  oranges  in  a 
single  season,  and  those  in  the  garden  of  the  Alcazar,  at 
Seville,  said  to  have  been  planted  at  the  time  of  King  Pedro  I, 
and  others  whose  hollow  trunks  still  support  luxuriant  foliage, 
which  might  have  afforded  shade  for  Charles  I,  for  they  date 
back  three  hundred  and  forty  years.  While  the  original  Cali- 


58 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


Thompson's  Improved  Navel— reduced. 


fornia  pair  may  not  command  the  admiration  that  do  the  his- 
torical ones  cited,  they  should  merit  the  fostering  care  of  a 
grateful  people,  for  they  revolutionized  the  orange  industry  in 

its  infancy  through- 
out California,  and 
made  possible  great 
profits  in  the  devel- 
opmentof  an  orange 
which  is  unsurpass- 
ed in  the  world. 
To-day,  these  trees, 
whose  progeny  has 
amassed  millions, 
stand  apart  from 
their  fellows,  re- 
ceiving meager  at- 
tention, but  still 
producing  'golden 
apples '  in  limited 
quanti  ties — one 
which  I  was  allow- 
ed to  pluck  showing 
a  measurement  of 
twelve  inches  in 
circumference  and 
weighing  a  trifle 
over  a  pound." 

THOMPSON'S  IM- 
PROVED NAVEL. — 
Originated  by  A.  C. 
Thompson,  of 
Duarte.  Fruit 
large  and  solid, 
juicy  and  sweet,  of 
very  fine  texture. 
Rind  very  smooth, 
oil  cells  small.  Tree  is  very  prolific,  and  bears  early. 

AUSTRALIAN  NAVEL. — Fruit  seedy,  varying  in  size  from  large 
to  small,  and  splits  at  the  navel,  which  is  usually  large  and 
prominent.  Tree  strong  grower,  but  a  very  shy  bearer. 


Cross-section  of  Thompson's  Improved  Navel- 
reduced. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 


59 


RIVER'S  NAVEL. — Fruit  medium,  ripens  late.  Tree  large  and 
productive.  Grown  extensively  by  A.  S.  Chapman,  at  San 
Gabriel,  who  considers  it  one  of  the  best  varieties  to  grow. 

DOUBLE  IMPERIAL  NAVEL. — Imported  from  Florida;  inferior. 

WHITNEY'S  SEEDLESS. — Florida. 

ATWOOD'S  SEEDLESS. — Florida. 

ORMAND'S  PRIZE. — Florida. 

SANFORD'S.— Pink- tinted  flesh;  Florida. 

NAVEL  BLOOD. — Florida. 

BRAZILIAN  NAVEL. 

St.  Michael  Type. 

PAPER  RIND  ST. 
MICHAEL.  —  Fruit 
small,  round,  very 
firm,  and  very  juicy; 
pale,  thin  skin;  grows 
uniformly  in  size. 
Ripens  late  and  keeps 
well  on  the  tree.  Tree 
of  a  semi-dwarf  habit, 
medium  thorny,  a 
good  bearer.  This  is 
the  thinnest  skinned 
orange  grown,  and 
very  popular. 

SMALL  ST.  MICHAEL. 
Fruit  very  small;  has 
thick,  coarse  skin;  in- 
ferior. 

LARGE  ST.  MICHAEL. 
A  variety  withou  t  pos- 
sessing the  St.  Michael 
characteristics.   FruitjJ 
large  and  coarse;  treej| 
thorny. 

AZOREAN    ST.    Mi-|§ 
CHAEL. — Fruit    medi-1 
um     to    large,    solid, ^ 
pulp  fine  and  melting,  , 

medium      thin      rind,   Cross-section  of  Paper  Kind  St.  Michael— natural  size. 


Paper  Rind  St.  Michael— natural  size. 


IS     >c.. 


60 


STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


flattened,  few  seeds.     Ripens  early  and  keeps  well  on  the  tree. 
Tree  is  a  rapid  grower  and  a  prolific  bearer. 
ST.  MICHAEL'S  EGG. — Florida. 


Valencia  Late— natural  size. 

VALENCIA  LATE 
(California's  favor- 
ite late  orange). — 
Fruit  medium  size, 
oblong,  tapering  to- 
ward calyx.  Few 
seeds,  pulp  very  fine, 
skin  smooth,  flavor 
subacid.  Ripens  late. 
Tree  thrifty  grower 
and  prolific  bearer. 
This  is  the  latest 
variety  known  in  the 
State,  rarely  becom- 
ing sweet  before  May 
or  June,  and  will 
hang  on  the  tree 
through  the  summer. 
It  has  often  been  kept  on  the  trees  until  Christmas. 


Cross-section  of  Valencia  Late— natural  size. 


THE    ORANGE   IN    CALIFORNIA VARIETIES.  61 

HART'S  TARDIVE. — (See  Valencia  Late,  which  seems  iden- 
tical.) 

WHITE  ORANGE.— Fruit  large,  round,  light  yellow,  flesh  white, 
like  a  lemon,  very  sweet,  texture  fine,  ripens  late.  Tree  a 
dwarf. 

Blood  Type. 

MALTA  BLOOD. — This  is  a  popular  variety.  The  fruit  has  a 
red  blush  on  the  surface,  which  gives  it  a  delightful  appear- 
ance not  possessed  by  any  other  fruit.  Fruit  medium  size, 
oval,  has  a  fine  texture  and  flavor,  and  is  sweeter  and  earlier 
than  the  Maltese  Blood.  The  pulp  is  marked  as  if  streaked 
and  mottled  with  blood;  has  very  few  seeds.  The  tree  is  of  a 
dwarf  habit  and  has  a  peculiar  character  of  growth,  very 
readily  distinguished. 

MALTESE  BLOOD. — Fruit  oval  in  shape,  medium  in  size,  pulp 
marked  a  vinous  red.  Ripens  later  than  the  Malta  Blood. 

RUBY. — Resembles  the  Malta  Blood,  and  the  pulp  is  marked 
a  vinous  red.  The  tree  is  a  good  grower  and  prolific  bearer. 

MEDITERRANEAN  BLOOD. — Florida. 

PIERCE  BLOOD. — Florida. 

LARGE  BLOOD. — Inferior. 

NICARAGUAN  BLOOD. — Inferior. 

Standard  Varieties  with  No  Distinctive  Mark. 

Rio. — Fruit  and  tree  resemble  the  Mediterranean  Sweet  (see 
page  63),  but  the  fruit  is  much  larger,  and  has  a  thick  skin. 
Ripens  late  and  uneven. 

HOMOSASSA. — Fruit  deep  orange  red,  flesh  melting  and  juicy, 
seeds,  thorny.  Ripens  early. 

PARSON  BROWN. — Fruit  medium,  oblong,  and  slightly  flattened 
at  the  stem  end,  smooth  skin,  juicy  and  sweet ;  is  sweet  from 
the  time  it  commences  to  turn.  Tree  medium  thorny,  a  fair 
grower  and  a  good  bearer.  Ripens  early. 

ASHER'S  BEST. — A  strain  of  the  Mediterranean  Sweet,  which 
it  resembles  in  both  growth  and  fruit. 

MAJORCA. — Fruit  medium  size,  nearly  round,  smooth,  juicy, 
and  few  seeds. 


62 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


Jaffa— natural  size. 


JAFFA. — Fruit  medium  size,  heavy  and  juicy,  thin  skinned, 
also  very  smooth.  A  remarkably  handsome  grower  and  nearly 
thornless. 


Cross-section  of  Jaffa— natural  size. 


THE    ORANGE   IN    CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 


63 


MEDITERRANEAN  SWEET. — Fruit  medium  size,  pulp  and  skin 
of  very  fine  texture,  solid  and  with  few  seeds;  ripens  late.  This 
variety  seems  to  require  special  climatic  conditions  and  soil  for 


Mediterranean  Sweet  orange  tree,  showing  habit,  productiveness,  etc. 

its  successful  fruiting.  At  Colton  the  tree  is  a  good  grower  and 
ranks  with  the  semi-dwarfs.  Tree  thornless,  and  one  of  the 
most  beautiful. 

Tangierine— Mandarin  Type. 

Citrus  ourantium,  var.  Nobilis,  Linn. 
Of  Japanese  and 
Chinese  origin. 
The  fruit  is  gen- 
erally small,  deep 
red  without  and 
within,  skin  loose 
and  easily  detach- 
ed, containing 
sweet  juice,  quite 
depressed.  Leaves 
of  most  varieties 
vary,  but  most  are 
somewhat  linear 
and  unarmed.  On 
account  of  the  fo- 
liage being  of  a  Tangerine  fruit  and  branch-reduced. 


64 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


weeping  habit  the  beat  results  have  been  attained  by  budding 
on  large  stocks,  quite  high  from  the  ground,  allowing  the 
branches  to  form  a  large  and  compact  head.  By  this  method 
the  trees  become  more  fruitful  and  uniform  in  shape.  This 
tree  requires  little  or  no  outside  pruning  and  grows  very  sym- 
metrical. 

SATSUMA  (Unshiu 
and  Oonshiu). — 
Japan.  Fruit  of  me- 
dium size,  flattened, 
rind  easily  detached, 
of  exceedingly  fine 
texture,  sweet  and 
nearly  seedless.  Tree 
dwarf  and  remarka- 
bly hardy,  especially 
when  worked  on  the 
Citrus  trifoliata — 
the  deciduous 
orange. 

K  ING.  —  Siam  . 
Fruit  large,  very 
rough  rind,  segments 
cleave  when  fully 
ripe,  very  highly 
flavored.  Tree  a 
handsome  grower, 
very  thorny. 

DANCY  TANGIE- 
RINE. — Fruit  small, 
much  flattened,  pulp 

very  sweet  and  fragrant,  color  deep  red,  nearly  seedless.  The 
foliage  closely  resembles  that  of  the  sweet  orange.  Tree  thorny 
and  an  upright  grower. 

KINNELOA. — Fruit  large,  depressed,  flattened,  few  seeds,  quite 
juicy.  Skin  very  'easily  detached  and  fragrant.  Tree  good 
grower,  very  productive. 

BROAD-LEAF  MANDARIN. — Japan.  Ornamental  only;  fruit  of 
no  commercial  value. 

OTHER  VARIETIES. — Bitter  Loose  Jacket,  Cleopatra,  Dr.  CogilPs 


Broad-Leaf  Mandarin  tree. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE 


Tangierine— Dancy— natural  size. 


Mandarin— King— natural  size. 


Mandarin— Kinneloa— natural  size. 


Willow-Leaf  Mandarin — natural  size 


Stevens — natural  size. 


5c 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  "CITRUS  AURANTIUM  NOBILIS. 


65 


66 


STATE    BOARD   OF    HORTICULTURE. 


Tangierine,  Paragon  Tangierine,  China  Sweet,  Mary  Bremont, 
Narrow-Leaf  Mandarin,  Thorny  Mandarin,  Emperor  Mandarin, 
China,  Coolie,  Canton,  Willow-Leaf  Tangierine,  Broad-Leaf 
Tangierine. 

Miscellaneous  Japanese  Citrus  Fruits. 

The  following  varieties  of  miscellaneous  citrus  fruits  have 
been  introduced  from  Japan,  and  after  being  thoroughly  tested 
were  found  to  lack  the  essential  qualities  required  for  their 


Seedling  Tangierine  tree  in  A.  S.  Chapman's  orchard  at  San  Gabriel,  showing  habit  of 

growth,  etc. 

culture  on  a  large  scale,  although  many  possess  considerable 
merit: 

NATSU-DAI-DAI. — A  species  of  pomelo;  coarse. 

DAI- DAI. — Very  thick  rind;  coarse. 

YUMA-BUKI-MIKAN. — Greenish  color;  rind  thick;  coarse. 

SHIRAWA-KOJI. — Small;  very  thick  rind  and  many  seeds. 

BENI-KOJI. — Very  highly  colored;  thin  rind  and  few  seeds. 

KIN-KUNENBO. — Thin  rind  and  few  seeds. 

JUKO. — Small,  with  very  thin  rind  and  full  of  seeds. 

TOKO-IUDZU. — Very  small;  a  species  of  Bergamot  lemon. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  V. 


Broad- Leaf  Mandarin— natural  size. 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  "CITRUS  AURANTIUM  JMOBILIS." 


68 


STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


JAGATARA-MIKAN. — A  species  of  pomelo;  very  coarse. 

MARU-BUSHIOKAN. — A  species  of  citron. 

To-MiKAN. — A  rusty  brown  orange;  very  thick  rind  and  full 
of  seeds. 

KINU-GAWA-MIKAN. — Very  large  and  bitter. 

BUSHIU-KAN. — Fruit  unsightly,  resembles  a  bunch  of  fingers; 
said  to  possess  medicinal  qualities. 


Bushiu-Kan— The  fingered  citron  of  Japan.    Used  for  medicinal  purposes. 

To- DAI-DAI. — Rusty  brown;  very  coarse  and  bitter. 
BENI-MIKAN. — Very  small;  thin  rind,  with  few  seeds. 
KAWAHI-MIKAN. — A  species  of  Mandarin. 
KiNOKUNi-MiKAN. — A  species  of  Tangierine. 
KOJI. — Rusty  brown;  very  thin  rind;  bitter  and  full  of  seeds. 
IUDZU. — Very  thick  rind;  coarse  and  bitter. 
MARUMI-KINKAN. — The  Kumquat. 
KABUSA. — Pulp  fine,  seeds  few,  rind  thick,  pulp  white. 
NARUTO-MIKAN. — Rusty  brown;  inferior. 
AMA-DAI-DAI.  —Rusty  brown;  medium  thin  rind,  pulp  white, 
few  seeds,  bitter. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 


Olive-Shaped  Kurnquat— natural  size. 


Kumquat  Type. 

Citrus  aurantium,  var.  Japon- 
ica,  Thunberg. 

OLIVE-SHAPED. — Fruit  very 
small, olive-shaped, rind  thick, 
yellow,  smooth,  sweet  scented, 
very  little  pulp,  contains  many 
seeds.  Tree  dwarf  (a  bush), 
four  to  six  feet;  a  very  prolific 
bearer.  The  fruit  is  edible 
whole;  the  rind  has  a  pleas- 
ant aroma.  Valuable  for  pre- 
serves and  marmalades. 


Round  Kumquat— natural  size. 

ROUND. — Smaller  than  the  Olive-Shaped;  fruit  round,  some- 
what acid. 

KINK  AN. — Fruit  very  small;  sweet  juice. 


70  STATE    BOARD   OF    HORTICULTURE. 

THE  SOUR  ORANGE. 

Citrus  vulgaris,  var.  Bigaradia,  Risso. 

From  the  species  vulgaris  all  others  are  supposed  to  have 
sprung,  which  are  sub-species  proper. 

The  fruit  of  the  bigaradia  and  its  many  descendants  is  of  a 
red  orange  color,  with  a  rugged  skin,  rough  and  porous.  Pulp 
yellow,  and  the  juice  extremely  bitter.  Leaf  large  and  petiole 


Sour  Orange  (Citrus  vulgaris,  var.  Bigaradia). 

highly  winged.  Flower  large  and  highly  perfumed.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  this  species,  and  the  fruit  of  some  is  used 
in  making  marmalade  and  preserves,  and  the  flowers  for  the 
manufacture  of  perfumery. 

This  species  does  not  grow  as  high  nor  as  robust  as  the  sweet 
orange,  but  on  account  of  its  hardiness  and  exemption  from 


THE    ORANGE    IN   CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES.  71 

disease  much  attention  has  been  given  to  its  culture  for  stocks. 
While  the  sweet  orange  requires  good  soil  and  high,  dry  eleva- 
tion, the  sour  orange  seefns  best  adapted  to  low,  wet  soils,  such 
as  it  is  grown  in  in  Florida,  known  as  "hammocks,"  and  along 
the  margins  of  swamps.  But  those  kinds  of  land  do  not 
exist  in  our  State,  and  while  the  sour  orange  stock  is  hardy 
beyond  question  and  thrives  in  our  dry  soils  under  entirely 
different  conditions,  it  has  not  superseded  the  sweet  orange 
stock  or  Tahiti  Seedling,  as  was  predicted  it  would,  and  perhaps 
never  will.  Trees  grown  on  sour  stocks  of  the  same  age  in 
almost  every  section  of  the  State  show  a  marked  difference  of 
growth.  The  trunks  are  not  as  large  as  those  on  sweet  stocks, 
and  show  less  expansion  of  root  system.  The  influence  of  the 
stocks  on  the  bud  is  also  traceable.  Those  on  sweet  root  show 
a  darker  foliage,  with  a  tendency  to  improvement  in  the 
quality  of  the  fruit.  The  tree  becomes  of  extraordinary  large 
size,  and  the  product  twice  or  more  as  large.  The  susceptibility 
of  the  sweet  stock  to  the  gum  disease  is  obviated  by  the  care 
bestowed  upon  it,  which  is  now  practiced  and  thoroughly 
understood. 

Types,  Sub-Species,  or  Varieties  of  C.  Bigaradia. 

The  following  types,  sub-species,  or  varieties  of  C.  bigaradia 
are  grown  in  Florida.  Occasionally  some  are  met  with  here, 
but  rarely : 

BITTER  SWEET. — Medium  size,  juicy,  sweet,  inner  rind  bitter. 
Tree  undistinguishable  from  the  Sour.  Native  wild  orange  of 
Florida. 

BITTER  SWEET  (PHILIP'S). — An  improved  variety  of  the  Bitter 
Sweet. 

SOUR. — Native  wild  orange  of  Florida;  fruit  large,  coarse; 
juice  acid,  inner  rind  bitter. 

SOUR  (ITALIAN). — Tree  thorhless  and  vigorous. 

WILLOW-LEAF  (ITALIAN). — Resembles  the  Italian  Sour. 

VARIEGATED  (SOUR). — Very  ornamental;  leaves  and  fruit 
mottled  with  white. 

VARIEGATED  (BITTER  SWEET). 

TARSUS  SOUR. 

MELANGOLO  SOUR. 

SOUR  SWEET. 


72  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

THE  BITTER  ORANGE. 

Citrus  aurantium,  var.  Bergamia,  Risso. 

The  flowers  of  the  Bergamot  orange  are  small,  white,  and 
highly  scented.  Leaves  oblong,  elongated,  acute  or  obtuse,  the 
underside  pale.  Petiole  more  or  less  winged.  Fruit  pale  yel- 
low, pyriform  or  depressed,  the  oil-vesicles  concave,  pulp 
acid,  and  the  whole  highly  perfumed.  The  tree  is  of  semi- 
dwarf  habit,  and  very  hardy.  There  are  a  great  many  varieties 
of  this  species,  some  bearing  large  fruits,  the  majority  of  which 
are  worthless,  and  some  bearing  small  fruits,  only  valuable  for 
the  manufacture  of  orange  and  essential  oils.  The  peel  of  the 
bitter  orange  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  aromatic  tonic,  and  the 
fruit  is  also  used  in  making  marmalade  and  preserves.  Many 
of  these  are  grown  in  Europe  for  the  essential  oil  they  contain, 
from  which  is  made  a  substance  known  as  bergamot  camphor. 
In  this  State  varieties  of  this  species  have  only  been  grown  for 
ornament,  to  which  purpose  they  are  well  suited. 

Varieties  of  C.  Bergamia. 

BERGAMOT. — Fruit  large,  rough,  flattened,  very  aromatic. 
Flowers  large,  double,  and  very  fragrant. 

BOUQUET. — Flowers  double  and  very  fragrant.  Leaves  large 
and  glossy.  Fruit  bitter. 

DOUBLE-FLOWERED. — Large  double  flowers,  very  aromatic, 
highly  prized  for  the  bloom. 

LARGE  MARMALADE. — Grown  in  Florida;  highly  prized. 

SWEET  SEVILLE. — Grown  in  Florida. 

PHILIP'S  BITTER  SWEET. 

MYRTLE-LEAF  TYPE. 

Citrus  aurantium,  var.  Myrtifolia,  Gallesio. 

Tree  very  ornamental,  dwarf,  foliage  densely  packed  together, 
leaf  small,  like  the  myrtle.  Flowers  small,  pure  white,  and 
very  fragrant.  Fruit  bitter. 

MYRTLE  LEAF. — Yellow  fruited. 

MYRTLE  LEAF. — Red  fruited. 

MYRTLE  LEAF. — White  fruited. 


THE   ORANGE   IN    CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES.  73 

THE  SHADDOCK. 

Citrus  aurantium,  var.  Decumana,  Willd. 

SEEDLINGS. — Hypocotyl  very  short,  subterranean. 

Cotyledons  subterranean,  and  remaining  in  the  seed  till  they  decay,  oblong- 
elliptic,  obtuse,  plano-convex,  fleshy,  sessile,  and  both  directed  to  one  side, 


Fruiting  branch  of  Shaddock  (Citrus  decumana)—  reduced. 

greenish-yellow  above,  yellowish  beneath,  somewhat  falcate,  13  mm.  long  and 
6  mm.  wide. 

Stem,  soon  becoming  woody,  covered  with  a  short,  very  fine  pubescence ; 
first  internode  55.5  cm.  long;  the  one  to  three  following'  ones  suppressed,  or 
from  two  to  four  of  the  leaves  on  the  same  level ;  succeeding  ones  again 
elongated. 

Leaves  as  in  C.  aurantium. 


74 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


First  pair  opposite,  orbicular,  emarginate,  subsessile,  not  articulated. 
Petiole  crenate. 

Second  pair  often  on  the  same  level  as  the  first  two,  so  that  there  is  a 
whorl  of  four.  When  distinct  oblong  or  elliptic,  obtuse,  otherwise  like  the 
two  preceding. 

Fifth  (where  the  first  four  are  whorled)  elliptic,  cuneate  at  the  base. 

Sixth  obovate-elliptic,  more  elongate  and  cuneate  at  the  base,  with  a 
swelling  of  the  midrib  some  distance  above  the  base,  corresponding  to 
articulation. 

Seventh  leaf  ovate,  bluntly  pointed,  articulated  with  an  oblanceolate 
winged  petiole,  obsoletely  crenate.— LINN^US. 


Modified  type  of  "Citrus  Decumana"— A  hybrid.    (Reduced  one  half.) 

Fruit  mostly  pyriform,  very  large,  pale  yellow,  with  rugged 
skin,  very  thick  and  bitter;  pulp  in  some  sorts  white  with 
green  tint,  in  others  dark  green.  Fruit  contains  many  large 
seeds,  and  very  little  juice,  which  is  bitter-acid.  The  tree  is  a 
rapid  grower  and  very  ornamental,  but  the  fruit  is  of  very 
little  value,  except  for  decorative  purposes.  It  is  greatly 


THE   ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 


75 


sought  by  the  Chinese  during  their  New  Year  celebrations  to 
ornament  their  homes  and  joss-houses,  and  many  thousands 
are  annually  imported  by  them  from  China  for  this  purpose. 
The  fruit  is  called  by  the  Chinese  yu  shu  and  gonlack.     The 
rind  and  flowers  are  said  to  furnish  an  essential  oil  of  consider- 
able value,  and  the  skin  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  bitters. 
The  propagation  of  the  shaddock  is  very  simple.     It  comes 
"true"  from  seed, 
or   mostly   so;   is 
budded  on  almost 
any  kind  of  citrus 
stock,  orange  pre- 
ferred ;     the    tree 
requires  less  care 
than  any  tree  of 
the  citrus  family. 

Varieties. 

CHINA.  —  Fruit 
very  large,  pyri- 
form;  tree  large 
grower. 

BLOOD.  —  Fruit 
very  large  with 
pink  flesh. 

FORBIDDEN 
FRUIT.  —  Fruit 
very  large,  pyri- 
form. 

MAMMOTH. — 
Fruit  extraordi- 
narily large,  pyri- 
form,  pale  yellow. 


omelo  tree  in  fruit. 


THE   POMELO.* 

Citrus  aurantium,  var.  Pomelanus,  Willd. 

Leaves  large,  very  dark  green,  somewhat  lanceolated  and 
notched  at  their  edges.  Leaf  stalk  markedly  winged.  Flowers 

*The  name  "grape  fruit"  has  been  applied  by  common  consent  to  this 
fruit,  from  its  habit  of  growing  in  clusters,  but  such  name  is  wrong  and 
misleading.  It  should  be  known  solely  as  Pomelo,  which  is  popular  and 
botanically  correct. 


76  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

white  (like  the  orange),  large  and  fleshy  (like  the  citron),  and 
arranged  in  large  clusters.  Fruit  of  most  varieties  extraordi- 
narily large,  round  or  pyriform,  with  a  smooth  yellow  skin. 
Tree  a  rapid  grower  and  prolific  bearer,  with  short  and  often 
flattened  branches. 

Owing  to  the  incomplete  research  and  lack  of  knowledge  of 
the  species  Pomelanus,  a  hybrid,  botanists  have  confounded  it 
with  Decumana,  and  have  joined  the  two  under  the  latter 
name,  but  it  has  no  place  there.  That  Pomelanus  (pomelo) 
was  confounded  with  Decumana  (shaddock)  was  no  doubt  on 
account  of  its  having  sprung  from  the  latter  and  on  account  of 
both  species  bearing  fruits  of  extraordinary  size;  decumana 
(Latin  for  huge)  has  been  indiscriminately  applied  to  both. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  all  these  fruits,  distinguishing 
them  from  the  different  varieties  of  the  orange,  are  associated 
with  their  size  and  color.  They  are  all,  or  nearly  all,  larger 
than  the  largest  orange,  and  are  uniformly  of  a  pale  yellow. 
In  texture  the  rind  may  be  smooth  or  even  polished;  it  is  sel- 
dom rough,  nearly  always  firm,  and  not  very  thick.  The  pulp 
is  pale  yellow  or  greenish  white,  sometimes  pink  or  crimson; 
the  vesicles  (juice  bags)  of  the  pulp  are  more  distinct  than  in 
the  orange;  very  juicy,  somewhat  sweetish,  with  a  distinct  but 
agreeable,  bitter  flavor.  The  pith  surrounding  the  segments 
possesses  more  of  the  bitter  than  the  pulp,  but  it  is  less  agree- 
able, and  on  that  account  is  never  eaten.  In  shape  these  fruits 
vary  a  good  deal.  Some  are  quite  globular,  others  somewhat 
flattened  at  the  top  and  tapering  below,  forming  a  pear-shaped 
body.  Even  in  the  globular  fruits  the  top  is  more  or  less 
flattened.  There  are  none,  we  believe,  pointed  at  both  ends. 

The  special  alkaloid  of  most  varieties  of  the  pomelo  contains 
a  bitter  principle,  which,  while  its  medicinal  virtues  are  con- 
ceded, has  not  yet,  I  regret  to  say,  been  defined  by  chemical 
examination.  Neither  is  it  safe  to  consider  it  quinine,  for 
there  are  scores  of  vegetable  bitters  which  are  not  quinine. 
The  presumption  therefore  is,  that  it  is  a  unique  bitter  prin- 
ciple peculiar  to  this  fruit. 

Observations  made  by  William  C.  Fuller,  of  Colton,  and 
myself  show  that  large  confluent  and  well-defined  oil  cells  in 
the  citrus  indicate  sweet  fruit,  and  especially  does  this  law  of 
energy  follow  when  applied  to  the  pomelo.  Considering  the 
purpose  for  which  the  demand  for  this  fruit  comes,  tendency 


THE   ORANGE    IN   CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES.  77 

to  undue  sweetness  should  be  avoided  and  varieties  producing 
fruit  with  a  delicate  bitter  should  be  sought. 

Within  the  past  five  years  a  good  deal  of  interest  has  been 
manifested  in  this  State  respecting  the  pomelo. 

For  medicinal  purposes  it  leads  all  the  citrus  fruits,  and  its 
value  from  this  point  of  view  is  as  yet  unknown.  Invalids 
find  it  just  the  thing  to  tone  up  their  system;  it  is  a  sure  pre- 
ventive of  that  languid  feeling  so  prevalent  in  spring;  when 
used  in  fevers  it  is  fully  as  beneficial  as  quinine  without  the 
deleterious  effect  of  that  drug,  and  is  one  of  the  finest  tonics  in 
the  world.  Women  find  it  exceedingly  valuable.  A  German 
physician  pronounces  it  a  cure  for  incipient  consumption  and 
kindred  lung  troubles.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  people  with 
weak  lungs  wintering  in  Florida  have  derived  permanent 
benefits  from  eating  the  fruit  regularly. 

Varieties. 

A  number  of  growers  and  shippers  from  different  sections  of 
the  southern  part  of  the  State  collected  samples  of  pomelos 
from  the  numerous  shipping  points  and  on  March  1  (1897) 
met  in  Los  Angeles  and  tested  them.  In  the  opinion  of  those 
assembled  the  best  shape  was  the  flat,  round;  and  best  color 
and  texture  were  a  lemon  color  and  a  peel  similar  to  the  St. 
Michael  orange.  The  most  desirable  sizes  wanted  by  the  trade 
are  those  that  pack  42,  56,  64,  and  80  to  the  box. 

DUARTE  SEEDLING. — A  Florida  seedling,  grown  at  Duarte; 
met  with  much  favor.  The  fruit  was  a  flat,  round,  growing 
from  42  to  80  (per  box)  in  size,  with  a  skin  the  color  of 
a  lemon,  and  no  thicker  than  that  of  a  Navel  orange.  The 
fruit  is  heavy  and  a  delightful  "  bitter  sweet,"  so  much 
enjoyed  in  the  East.  It  had  quite  a  few  seeds,  but  very  little 
rag  or  waste.  The  peel  and  section  linings  are  very  bitter. 

COLTON  TERRACE  SEEDLING*. — Grown  at  Colton;  was  the 
next  best  variety  tested.  The  fruit  had  a  thicker  rind  and  a 
more  orange  color  and  much  more  rag  and  waste;  the  flavor, 
however,  was  nearly  the  same. 

Prof.  H.  B.  Heiges,  late  U.  S.  Pomologist,  says  of  this  seed- 
ling, in  a  letter  to  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Los  Angeles: 
"The  California  seedling  pomelo  was  much  finer  and  thinner 

*  Sample  was  given  the  committee  thinking  the  same  was  for  immediate 
use  and  not  for  comparison. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  VI. 


COLTON  TERRACE  SEEDLING  POMELO. 


L     J 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  VII. 


80  STATE   BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

in  the  skin  than  the  Triumph,  and  was  of  superior  quality;  in 
fact,  no  pomelo  that  has  been  received  by  this  Division  sur- 
passed in  quality  the  California  seedling." 

Fruit  medium  to  large,  heavy,  subacid  and  delicate  bitter, 
full  of  seeds;  skin  smooth,  light  lemon  color,  very  small  oil 
cells,  turning  slightly  orange  when  mature. 

From  an  analysis  made  by  Chemist  George  E.  Colby,  of  the 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, I  am  able  to  compare  the  relative  merits  of  this  seed- 
ling as  against  the  analysis  of  the  Triumph,  a  variety  which 
is  now  very  popular,  as  follows: 

Colton  Terrace 

Physical  Analysis —                                            Triumph.  Seedling. 

Average  weight,  in  grams 440.  430. 

Rind 23.1  %  30.7  % 

Pulp,  pressed.. __ .- 25.4  %  29.5  % 

Seeds 3.40%  3.40% 

Juice 1.75%  1.38% 

Analysis  of  Juice — 

Solid  contents,  by  spindle 11.20%  10.00% 

Total  sugars 8.00%  6.80% 

Acid,  citric -      2.31%  2.00% 

TRIUMPH. — This  variety,  in  the  opinion  of  those  assembled, 
ranked  next.  This  was  considered  a  fine-looking  fruit,  full  of 
juice,  but  lacking  in  the  real  pomelo  taste  of  the  first  two 
named.  The  texture  of  both  peel  and  fruit  was  pronounced 
very  desirable. 

COMMERCIAL. — This  variety  attracted  much  attention  for  its 
large,  desirable  size,  the  fine  color  and  shape,  and  also  that  it 
had  a  good  lot  of  juice,  but  did  not  compare  in  flavor  with  the 
first  three  varieties  named. 

AURANTIUM. — A  medium  to  small  variety,  with  a  sweet  rind; 
imported  from  Florida.  It  is  said  to  be  a  cross  between  an 
orange  and  a  pomelo,  partakes  greatly  of  the  orange,  and  does 
not  possess  the  eccentric  bitter  principle  so  much  sought  in 
this  fruit. 

THESCA  BLOOD. — From  Florida;  a  large  pear-shaped  variety, 
with  pink-colored  pulp,  described  as  being  "  a  good  grower  and 
heavy  cropper.  Fruit  medium  size,  pale  yellow  in  color,  with 
slightly  bitter  pulp." 

BLOOD  (syn.,  PINK). — This  variety  is  apparently  very  prolific, 
slight  bitter  principle  of  the  species,  agreeable  acid;  tree  very 
vigorous,  with  striking  foliage;  an  ornamental  tree,  as  well  as 
interesting  fruit  with  its  tinted  texture;  skin  thicker  than  some. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  VIII. 


AURANTIUM,  OR  ORANGE,  POMELO— Slightly  reduced. 


PKRNAMBUCO  POMELO— Reduced  one  half. 


6c 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  POMELO. 


81 


82 


STATE   BOARD   OF    HORTICULTURE. 


DUNCAN. — A  new  variety  recently  introduced  into  the  State. 
Much  larger  than  an  orange  and  smaller  than  a  shaddock;  a 
delicious  fruit,  by  many  preferred  to  an  orange.  Skin  smooth, 
pale  yellow,  subacid.  The  membrane  dividing  the  pulp  is 
bitter  and  must  be  removed  before  eating  the  pulp. 

THURSBY. 

MARCH  SEEDLESS. 

LEONDARDY. 


THE  OTAHEITE  ORANGE. 

Citrus  aurantium,  var.  Pumilum,  Gallesio. 

This  dwarf  species  of  the  citrus  is  largely  grown  in  Florida  as 
a  stock  for  budding  purposes.     It  is  used  to  dwarf  varieties  of 


Branch  and  fruit  of  Otaheite  orange — re- 
duced one  half. 


the  sweet  orange.  The  tree  is  a  shrub,  never  attaining  a  greater 
height  than  six  to  eight  feet.  The  fruit  is  very  small;  the 
flowers  are  of  a  reddish  color — a  pretty  ornamental  shrub. 


THE    ORANGE   IN    CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 


83 


DECIDUOUS  ORANGE. 

Citrus  aurantium,  var.  Trifoliate,  Linn. 

A  hardy  deciduous 
species  from  Japan. 
Early  in  the  fall  it 
sheds  its  leaves  and 
becomes  entirely  dor- 
mant, in  which  con- 
dition it  passes  the 
winter.  The  tree  is 
very  dwarf,  of  a  shrub- 
by habit,  and  suitable 
for  hedges  and  dwarf- 
ing varieties  of  oranges 
and  lemons.  Fruit 
orange  yellow,  spheri- 
cal, about  one  and  one 
half  inches  in  diame- 
ter. Leaves  trifoliate, 
leaflets  sessile,  ellipti- 
cal, obtuse,  on  a  wing- 
ed petiole.  Branches  robust,  often  more  or  less  flattened ;  very 
thorny. 


r 


Branch  and  fruit  of  C.  trifoliata— reduced  one  half. 


MISCELLANEOUS  SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 

The  following  varieties  of  the  various  species  have  been  im- 
ported from  different  parts  of  the  globe,  many  of  which  have 
proved  to  be  duplications  of  varieties  under  different  names. 
Owing  to  change  of  location,  climatic  conditions,  etc.,  they 
have  not  come  up  to  expectations.  Those  marked  with  an 
asterisk  (*)  possess  merit;  all  others  proved  failures,  although 
it  is  doubtful  if  any  are  now  grown  in  this  State: 


Selecta* 

Candian* 

Paros 

Mitylene* 

Samos 

Parakila 


Catania 

China 

Oval 

Lorretto 
Sabina 
Poor  Man 
Chinese  Oval 

Chio 
Archipelago 
Tenedos 
Scio 

Early  Spanish 
Parramatta 
Royal* 
Belearic,    or     Ma- 

Imperial* 

Kau 

lorea* 

84 


STATE   BOARD   OF    HORTICULTURE. 


Accaway* 
Shamanty 
Tarsus  (sweet) 
Red  Juiced 
Round 
Havana 


Silver  Leaf  (orna-  Belady* 
mental)  Bisry 

Violet  Flower  (or-  Vanigila 
namental) 

Portugal 


Double-Flowered 
Sicilian 


Orange  of  Nice 
Jamaican 

Compaida      (orna- 
mental) 
Lisbon 


Many  varieties  have  been  introduced  into  Florida  and  many 
have  also  originated  there.  In  late  years  many  varieties  have 
been  introduced  into  California  from  that  State.  After  fruiting, 
the  majority  of  these  also  proved  a  further  duplication  of  vari- 
eties under  different  names.  Some  of  them  are  still  grown,' 
but  only  to  a  limited  extent.  The  Botelka  is  extensively  grown 
by  A.  Scott  Chapman  at  San  Gabriel.  He  considers  it  profit- 
able to  grow,  owing  to  its  good  shipping  qualities.  It  is  also 
grown  in  different  portions  of  the  northern  part  of  the  State. 
The  following  is  a  partial  list;  those  marked  with  two  aster- 
isks (**)  being  of  Florida  origin: 


Early  Oblong** 

Double  Imperial 

Cunningham** 

Dann's  Best** 

Egg** 

Navel 

Tony** 

Osceola** 

Botelka** 

Bostrom's    Prize 

Pineapple** 

Oce** 

Dulcissima 

Navel** 

Spratt's  Harmon 

Prata,  or  Silver** 

Prata 

Richardson's  Na- 

Bell** 

Beach's  No.  5** 

Exquisite 

vel** 

Pierce'  s  Blood** 

Foster** 

Old  Vina** 

China    (Tangier- 

Round    Sweet 

Indian  River 

Arcadia 

ine,  willow  leaf) 

Blood** 

Milikensis 

Prolific 

Golden  Variegat- 

Armory's Blood** 

Marquis 

Star  Calyx 

ed  (Mandarin) 

Sail's  Blood** 

Sanford's  Navel 

Acis 

Markham'sBest** 

Mediterranean 

Orange  Lake** 

Centennial** 

Higley's  Late** 

Blood 

Queen 

Dr.  May's  Best 

Wilder** 

Thornless** 

Queen  of  Halifax 

Nonpareil** 

Dixon** 

Foundling** 

Sustain  Navel 

Pernambuco 

Krause** 

De  Barry's  Seed- 

Velvet Peel  (orna- 

Mediterranean 

Pride  of  Malta 

ling** 

mental) 

(Sanford's) 

Everbearing** 

Dr.  Stark'  s  Best** 

Whitaker** 

Parson's  Navel** 

Peerless 

Mellwood     Seed- 

Indian       River 

Italian  Navel 

Madame  Vinous** 

ling** 

Sweet** 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ORANGE. 

Planting  the  Seed. — The  best  time  to  plant  orange  seed  is 
in  the  months  of  March  and  April,  and  even  in  May  and  June. 
Early  planting  is  not  recommended,  because  it  does  not  give 
good  results.  When  planted  too  early  many  seeds  decay,  wait- 
ing for  spring,  their  time  of  germination.  The  seed-bed  should 
be  kept  moist,  but  not  too  wet. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA— PROPAGATION.  85 

Collecting  the  Seed. — There  are  various  ways  in  vogue,  but 
in  the  one  most  commonly  used  the  fruit  is  piled  in  heaps  or 
put  into  barrels  to  rot.  When  it  has  decayed  sufficiently  to 
break  easily  when  handled,  it  is  crushed  in  a  tub  or  barrel  and 
the  seeds  are  washed  out.  A  coarse  sieve  is  used;  the  soft  sub- 
stance of  the  fruit  passes  through,  leaving  the  seeds  in  the  sieve. 
This  operation  is  carried  on  in  a  place  where  water  can  be  used 
freely,  as  considerable  is  required  to  do  the  work  properly. 

Keeping  the  Seed. — To  insure  best  results,  the  seed  of  the 
orange  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  after  being  taken  from  the 
fruit.  If  not  ready  to  plant  then,  they  should  be  put  in  moist 
sand.  In  this  way  they  can  be  kept  until  everything  is  pre- 
pared. 

How  to  Put  the  Seed  in  Sand.— Take  a  shallow  box,  say 
five  inches  deep  and  twenty  or  thirty  inches  square;  fill  it  half 
full  of  moist  sand,  then  put  the  seed  on  top,  about  two  inches 
deep.  On  top  of  the  seed  place  considerable  sand  and  mix 
the  sand  and  the  seed  together  with  the  hands.  This  is  done  so 
that  the  sand  will  stick  to  the  seeds  and  prevent  them  from 
adhering  to  each  other.  Then  fill  up  the  box  with  sand  and 
let  the  seeds  remain  until  they  are  to  be  planted.  The  boxes 
can  be  stacked  one  upon  another. 

Taking  the  Seed  Out  of  the  Sand.— The  seed-bed  having 
been  prepared,  take  the  top  box  and  dump  its  contents  into  a 
coarse  sieve.  This  must  be  done  with  care,  so  as  not  to  bruise 
the  seed.  Then  shake  the  sieve;  the  sand  will  pass  through, 
leaving  the  seed  in  the  sieve. 

The  Seed-Bed. — The  seed-bed  should  be  inclosed  with 
boards,  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  wide,  set  on  edge,  about  four 
or  six  feet  apart.  The  bottom  should  be  floored,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  ingress  of  gophers  and  other  rodents.  Laths  are 
nailed  on  top,  leaving  a  space  of  one  half  inch  between  them, 
to  protect  the  seed  from  being  scratched  up  by  birds.  A  cover- 
ing of  thin  muslin  is  put  on  top  of  the  laths  to  prevent  the 
young  plants  from  being  scorched  by  the  sun.  If  the  weather 
be  cloudy,  it  is  well  that  the  covering  be  removed  to  allow  the 
seed-bed  to  get  warm.  It  is  better  to  plant  the  seed  broadcast 
but  not  too  thickly,  as  the  plants  will  grow  slender  and  not  so 


86  STATE   BOARD   OF    HORTICULTURE. 

strong  and  thrifty  as  when  sown  sparingly.  The  seed  should 
be  covered  with  fine,  rich  soil,  from  one  to  two  inches  in  depth. 
Boxes  filled  with  rich  soil  are  also  used  in  which  to  grow  seed- 
lings. They  are  set  close  to  each  other  on  the  ground,  watered 
and  covered  the  same  as  the  seed-bed. 

Transplanting. — In  one  year  the  plants  will  be  large 
enough  to  be  transplanted  in  nursery  form.  They  are  sorted, 
the  very  small  and  delicate  ones  planted  by  themselves,  or 
transplanted  in  boxes  and  kept  another  year;  being  so  small 
and  delicate  they  are  generally  scorched  by  the  sun  when 
planted  in  the  open  ground,  and  remain  small  in  the  nursery. 

Distance  of  Nursery  Rows. — The  rows  should  be  far  enough 
apart  to  admit  a  cultivator  between  them.  Grave  mistakes  are 
often  made  in  setting  the  plants  less  than  four  feet  apart,  as  in 
cultivating  after  being  budded  many  buds  are  knocked  off  by 
the  horse  or  the  traces  rubbing  against  them.  Preference  is 
given  to  rows  when  set  five  or  six  feet  apart.  This  will  give 
ample  room  for  cultivation;  and  also,  in  digging  up  trees,  a 
small,  narrow  sled  can  be  run  in  to  haul  them  to  the  head  of 
the  rows  without  rubbing  against  the  nursery  stock. 

Planting  close  together  in  the  rows  tends  to  make  feeble  and 
slender  trees.  If  it  is  not  intended  to  "sack"  or  "ball"  the 
trees  when  they  are  to  be  transplanted,  then  the  plants  can  be 
set  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  apart,  and  they  will  make  strong 
and  thrifty  stocks;  but  if  it  is  intended  to  "sack"  them  this  is 
too  close.  They  should  be  at  least  eighteen  inches  apart;  this 
will  give  the  digger  enough  space  to  take  up  trees  between 
others.  It  also  has  the  advantage  of  not  cutting  the  roots 
too  short,  which  is  apt  to  be  the  case  when  the  plants  are  close 
together. 

Trimming  the  Stock.— The  plants  should  be  trimmed  but 
sparingly  until  at  least  one  year  after  planting.  They  should 
be  left  to  grow  almost  at  will  the  first  year,  as  they  will  with- 
stand the  cold  of  winter  better.  When  plants  are  trimmed  too 
young  they  generally  make  slender  and  feeble  stock.  In  the 
following  spring,  as  early  as  possible,  say  in  February,  the 
plants  are  trimmed,  leaving  a  clear  stock.  All  cuts  should  be 
made  close  so  that  they  may  soon  heal  over.  The  brush  is 
then  gathered  and  burned.  As  the  ground  becomes  packed  by 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA— PROPAGATION.  87 

the  trimmers  it  should  be  loosened  by  running  a  cultivator 
between  the  rows. 

Topping  the  Trees. — When  a  tree  is  taken  from  the  nursery 
the  foliage  should  be  cut  back;  the  branches  should  be  so  cut 
that  in  starting  they  will  form  a  fine-shaped  head.  This  is 
done  because  evaporation  from  the  leaves  is  rapid.  In  many 
cases  where  the  top  shoots  are  left  on,  the  circulation  of  the 
trees  becomes  dry  and  the  bark  will  shrivel  before  the  roots 
have  assumed  their  natural  functions. 

Balling  System. — A  narrow  trench  is  made  along  the  row 
and  within  six  inches  of  the  tree;  the  taproot  is  cut  about 
eighteen  inches  deep;  then  with  a  spade  an  oblong  ball  is  cut, 
leaving  in  it  the  tree.  The  spade  should  be  very  sharp,  or  in 
cutting  the  roots  the  jar  will  break  the  ball.  Pruning  shears 
are  used  in  cutting  large  roots.  When  trees  are  taken  up  with 
a  solid  ball  of  earth  the  leaves  will  scarcely  wilt. 

Puddling  System. — Puddling  is  practiced  where  the  soil  is 
so  loose  that  sacking  is  rendered  impossible.  Many  prefer  this 
system  to  any  other,  as  it  gives  the  trees  larger  and  more  roots ; 
and  where  all  due  precautions  are  taken,  puddling  is  the  best 
system,  besides  saving  considerable  expense. 

A  hole  is  made  in  the  ground  and  filled  half  full  of  water, 
then  soil  is  thrown  in  and  worked  with  a  hoe,  which  forms  a 
puddle.  The  puddle  should  be  thin  enough  so  that  when  the 
roots  of  the  trees  are  put  into  it,  the  mud  will  stick  to  them,  at 
the  same  time  wetting  every  part  thoroughly.  The  trees  are 
carefully  taken  up,  the  soil  shaken  from  the  roots,  and  they  are 
immediately  dipped  into  the  mud  or  puddle.  They  are  then 
placed  on  wet  straw  in  a  wagon.  A  covering  is  placed  over  the 
wagon  to  prevent  the  sun  from  drying  the  roots,  as  the  roots 
should  not  be  exposed  to  the  sun,  even  if  only  for  a  few  min- 
utes. The  wagon  is  then  driven  to  the  field  where  the  holes 
have  been  dug.  The  driver  hands  the  trees,  one  at  a  time,  to 
the  planter,  who  holds  them  in  position  while  his  men  fill  the 
hole  with  dirt,  first  throwing  in  the  moistest.  The  planter 
presses  the  soil  very  lightly,  and  goes  to  the  next  one.  The 
tree  having  been  set,  a  basin  is  made  around  it  and  a  couple 
of  buckets  of  water  poured  into  the  basin;  this  will  settle  the 
soil  and  keep  the  tree  fresh  until  water  can  be  run  down  the 
rows  in  furrows. 


88  STATE    BOARD    OP    HORTICULTURE. 

Transplanting  the  Trees  from  the  Nursery  to  the 
Orchard. — This  important  work  often  determines  the  future 
growth  and  fruitage  of  the  orchard.  Its  performance  in  all  its 
details  should  be  conducted  in  a  manner  to  give  as  little  shock 
to  the  growth  of  the  tree  as  possible.  Mr.  L.  C.  Waite,  of 
Riverside,  has  had  great  success  in  transplanting  trees  in  their 
natural  state;  that  is,  removing  the  tree  without  balling, 
leaving  the  roots  free  from  soil.  He  attaches  great  importance 
to  two  conditions:  first,  selecting  the  proper  time  for  removal; 
and  second,  the  manner  of  handling.  The  time  for  removing 
the  tree  is  when  it  has  made  a  previous  growth  and  has 
hardened  that  growth  and  balanced  it  by  a  later  root  growth. 
In  this  condition  it  is  ready  to  put  out  a  new  branch  growth. 
Before  this  appears  the  fine  roots  are  cut  on  one  side  of  the 
tree  by  the  use  of  a  sharp  spade.  At  the  same  time  the  tap- 
root is  cut  at  the  proper  depth  below  the  surface.  The  excava- 
tion is  then  filled  with  earth,  and  the  tree  allowed  to  remain 
for  several  days  until  the  rootlets  and  the  taproot  have  formed 
a  crown  of  growth.  By  leaving  the  rootlets  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  tree  undisturbed  by  the  first  handling  this  growth 
is  rapid.  When  the  growth  is  sufficiently  developed  the  tree 
can  then  be  removed  from  the  nursery  to  the  orchard  by  the 
second  handling.  This  is  to  cut  the  remaining  roots,  being 
careful  to  leave  unbroken  the  roots  cut  at  the  previous  hand- 
ling. When  this  tree  is  placed  in  orchard  form  the  earlier  cut 
roots  are  ready  to  start  new  growth  immediately.  The  shock 
to  the  tree  by  its  last  necessary  mutilation  is  hardly  felt.  Every 
care  must  be  taken  in  carrying  the  tree  from  the  nursery  to  the 
orchard  to  keep  the  tender  and  sensitive  rootlets  from  drying. 

*"If  orange  trees  are  properly  handled  from  the  time  they 
are  dug  in  the  nursery  until  they  are  planted  in  orchard  form, 
there  should  be  no  loss.  We  have  found  in  our  experience  in 
planting,  that  if  this  plan  is  properly  followed  we  do  not  lose 
any  trees,  but  if  orange  tree  roots  are  exposed  to  sunshine  or 
wind,  for  a  short  time  only,  the  planter  will  lose  a  large  per- 
centage of  his  trees;  besides,  those  which  grow  will  have  such  a 
sickly  growth  that  he  would  be  better  off  if  they  had  died  with 
the  others.  We  know  that  it  is  possible  to  pack  trees  so  that 

*B.  F.  Dixon,  in  essay  before  Escondido  Farmers'  Institute,  November, 
1896. 


THE    ORANGE    IN   CALIFORNIA — PROPAGATION.  89 

they  may  be  shipped  long  distances  and,  when  planted,  nearly 
all  live,  but  from  observation  of  the  experience  of  various 
planters  we  have  concluded  that  the  only  safe  plan  is  to  buy 
your  trees  from  the  nearest  nursery  and  superintend  the  digging 
of  them  yourself.  After  your  trees  are  planted  in  orchard  form 
they  should  be  watered  and  thoroughly  cultivated  every  thirty 
days  during  the  dry  season.  In  the  rainy  season  cultivate 
enough  to  keep  down  the  weeds." 

*"  J.  H.  Reed,  whose  systematic  methods  and  habit  of  care- 
ful observation  peculiarly  fit  him  for  successful  experimental 
work,  has  demonstrated  to  the  members  of  this  club,  and  to 
the  satisfaction  of  various  other  careful  observers,  the  value  of 
the  following  methods  in  transplanting  orange  and  lemon 
trees: 

"  First — In  taking  up  the  trees  the  roots  should  be  protected 
by  a  ball  of  earth; 

"  Second — That,  to  the  satisfaction  of  various  careful  ob- 
servers the  most  essential  factor  in  tree  growth,  should  be 
preserved  as  far  as  possible; 

"  Third — Where  it  is  practicable,  the  tree  should  be  trans- 
ferred to  its  new  home  immediately  after  the  taproot  is  cut, 
and  loose  earth  carefully  filled  around  it; 

<;  Fourth — Let  water  in  furrows  follow  the  planters  and  fill 
the  holes,  thoroughly  settling  fine  earth  around  the  balls  or 
roots. 

"By  carefully  observing  these  points,  if  the  nursery  is  near 
by,  every  leaf  may  be  saved,  and  the  tree  will  resume  the  work 
of  growth  almost  immediately.  Examination  in  a  day  or 
two  after  planting  will  show  a  large  number  of  fibrous  roots 
reaching  out  from  the  ball  into  the  new  soil  around  it.  A 
small  amount  of  well-rotted  manure  placed  near  the  roots,  but 
not  immediately  touching  the  ball,  will  assist  in  giving  a 
vigorous  growth. 

"The  evidence  from  actual  observation  and  experience  is 
conclusive  that  trees  thus  treated  will  make  a  growth  the  first 
year  which  cannot  be  approximated  if  the  trees  are  taken  up 
with  bare  roots.  Indeed,  if  the  leaves  wilt  and  mostly  drop, 
the  tree  will  seldom  do  more  the  first  year  than  reclothe  itself, 
and  will  be  a  year  later  in  coming  into  bearing. 

*From  report  of  committee,  by  J.  M.  Edmison,  to  Riverside  Horticul- 
tural Club,  February,  1899. 


90 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


The  roots  extended  in 
planting. 


"It  is  very  important  the  first  season  after  transplanting 
trees  to  run  water  frequently,  at  least  so  as  to  insure  soft  and 
moist  earth  about  the  roots  at  all  times.  And  it  is  better  to 
run  water  in  furrows  through  the  entire  open  space  between 
the  rows.  Experiments  have  shown  that  the  roots  reach  out 
enormously,  even  the  first  year,  if  favorable  conditions  are 
provided." 

Extending  the  Roots. — A  common  practice  in  planting 
trees  with  loose  roots,  of  placing  the  tree  in  the  hole,  filling  it 
up  with  soil  and  water,  and  then  tramping, 
should  be  avoided.  As  the  roots  are  covered 
with  thick  mud  they  will  stick  together,  and 
if  the  tree  grows  it  will  not  do  as  well  as  when 
the  roots  are  extended  with  care.  This  is  very 
simple.  The  hole  is  half  filled  with  earth, 
which  being  loose  admits  the  taproot  of  the 
tree  by  slight  pressure  of  the  hand;  then  the 
lateral  roots  are  spread  and  the  soil  is  lightly 
pressed.  Heavy  tramping  is  not  necessary,  as 
the  water  settles  the  dirt  and  keeps  the  roots 
in  place.  As  soon  as  the  water  in  the  basin 
has  disappeared,  the  basin  is  covered  with  loose  soil;  this  will 
prevent  evaporation,  and  keep  the  tree  from  leaning  over. 
Trees  planted  with  these  precautions  make  the  best  growth 
and  become  the  most  thrifty. 

Shading  Newly  Set  Plants.— Plants  set  out  during  summer 

or  during  a  period  of  sunny 
weather  often  wilt  and  many 
perish,  unless  duly  protected. 
The  accompanying  illustra- 
tion shows  a  simple  method  of 
protecting  freshly  set  plants. 
These  shades  are  made  of  any 
size  desired,  from  old  paste- 
board boxes,  which  are  easily 
obtained  at  drygoods  stores, 
etc.  Squares  are  cut  from  the 
top,  bottom,  and  sides.  They 

are  nailed  to  a  peg  made  ot  any  kind  of  material,  in  the  man- 
ner shown.  These  shades  can  be  put  down  close  to  the  plant, 
and  when  taken  up  after  a  few  days  can  be  kept  for  future  use. 


THE   ORANGE   IN    CALIFORNIA— BUDDING.  91 

:      v  v          BUDDING.  ••-.-•     ' •"<;  ;  ' 

There  are  various  systems  of  budding  citrus  trees.  In 
Florida  and  Louisiana  the  most  popular  method  is  the  reverse 
from  the  one  universally  practiced  in  this  State. 

Time  to  Bud. — The  best  time  to  bud  citrus  trees  is  in  March 
and  April,  as  soon  as  the  trees  begin  to  put  forth  and  the  sap 
flows  freely.  Everything  should  be  prepared;  no  time  should 
be  lost,  as  buds  inserted  early  in  the  season  start  with  vigor, 
and  by  fall  have  a  large  and  thrifty  top.  The  buds  should  be 
looked  over  at  least  ten  days  after  they  are  inserted,  and  all 
those  which  show  signs  of  not  having  "taken"  should  be  re- 
budded  in  order  to  give  them  an  early  start,  and  that  they  may 
grow  more  evenly  with  those  first  budded. 

Budding  done  in  June  and  July  is  styled  "summer  budding." 
It  is  not  considered  as  good  as  early  spring  budding,  because 
the  buds  do  not  start  even;  and  as  the  greater  portion  of  them 
start  late  their  growth  is  so  tender  by  the  time  winter  sets  in 
that,  if  they  pass  through  it,  they  become  prematurely  hardened 
by  the  cold  weather,  which  sometimes  causes  the  trees  to  become 
stunted. 

Fall  budding  is  generally  performed  during  September  and 
October,  and  sometimes  in  favored  localities  as  late  as 
November.  After  the  strings  have  been  removed  they  are  left 
to  pass  the  winter  in  dormant  bud,  to  be  started  in  the  spring. 

Methods  Illustrated. — The  selection  of  cions  is  very  impor- 
tant. Only  plump  and  healthy  buds  should  be  chosen;  dor- 


FIG.  1 — Thornless  orange  buds. 

mant  or  blind  and  immature  buds  should  be  avoided.  Fig.  1 
shows  an  orange  stick  prepared  for  budding.  In  this  the  leaves 
have  been  cut  off  the  leaf  stem  at  the  proper  distance  from  the 


FIG.  2— Thorny  lemon  buds. 

bud.     Fig.  2  shows  a  thorny  lemon  bud,  also  with  the  leaves 
removed,  and  ready  for  use.     The  stocks  are  previously  pre- 


92 


STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


pared  for  budding  by  the  removal  of  all  growth  to  about  eight 
or  ten  inches  from  the  ground,  or  at  the  height  they  are  to  be 
budded,  So  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  men.  The  lemon  should 
be  budded  at  such  a  height  that  its  union  with  the  stock  will 
be  above  the  line  of  irrigation  and  moisture  arising  therefrom. 
This  guards  the  lemon  against  disease. 

The  first  operation  consists  in  making  a  vertical  incision  in 
the  bark,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.     Note  the  position  in  which  the 
knife  is  held.     It  is  not  necessary  to  press 
too  hard, but  simply  cut  through  the  bark. 
The  transverse  incision  is  then  made  at 
the  top  of  the  ver- 
tical incision,  as 


FIG.  3. 


FIG.  4. 


FIG.  5. 


shown  in  Fig.  4,  and  by  a  slight  twist  of  the  hand  from  left  to 
right  the  bark  becomes  opened  sufficiently  to  admit  the  point 
of  the  bud  to  enter  into  the  incision  (see  Fig.  5).  Now  comes 
the  cutting  of  the  bud,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  Note  the 
position  of  the  hands  and  the  manner  of  holding  the  knife. 
The  point  of  the  bud  is  held  downward  and  the  buds  are  cut 
from  the  back.  In  this  way  the  buds  are  cut  smooth  and  do 
not  crack  in  cutting,  as  is  the  case  when  cut  from  above.  The 
bud  is  then  inserted  by  holding  it  between  the  fingers  and  press- 
ing it  downward  into  position,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  It  is  then 


THE    ORANGE    IN   CALIFORNIA — BUDDING. 


93 


tied  with  soft  budding  twine  (although  other  materials,  such  as 
cloth,  etc.,  are  greatly  preferred  by  some),  as  shown  in  Fig.  8, 
which  shows  the  opera- 
tion complete.  Figs.  7 
and  8  show  the  treat- 
ment of  the  stock  after 
the  bud  has  "taken," 
and  not  at  the  time  of 
budding.  In  order  to 
start  the  buds  it  is  best 
to  cut  back  the  stocks  as 
shown  in  the  figures, 
leaving  a  portion  of  the 
foliage  until  the  buds 
have  made  a  good  start. 
This  prevents  a  check  of 

the   flow  of  sap,   which  FlG  6 

generally    is     the     case 


FIG.  7.  FIG.  8. 

when  all   the   leaves   are  removed  with  pthe  to,  causing  the 


94  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

incision  to  open  and  the  bud  to  dry.  This  brush  is  removed 
later  at  the  point  shown  in  Fig.  7,  at  a.  When  the 
buds  start  they  are  very  delicate  and  require  to  be 
protected  by  being  tied  to  the  stock,  either  with  soft 
twine  or  cloth,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9.  When  the  buds 
have  become  strong  the  remaining  portion  of  the 
stock  is  sawed  off  at  the  point  shown  in  Fig.  9  at  o. 
The  cut  is  then  waxed  over,  or  given  one  or  more 
coats  of  rubber  paint,  to  protect  it  from  atmospheric 
action,  that  the  cut  may  heal  over  without  defects. 

Starting  and  Training  the  Buds, — Nursery  trees  swell  very 
fast  in  the  spring,  and  three  weeks  is  long  enough  for  the 
strings  to  remain  on  them;  but  the  tops  should  not  be  cut  off 
then.  The  strings  should  be  removed,  and  the  nursery  irri- 
gated and  cultivated.  This  will  force  new  growth,  and  the  tops 
should  then  be  cut  back  from  four  to  eight  inches  above  the 
bud.  After  the  bud  has  grown  about  six  inches  or  more  it  is 
tied  to  the  stock.  When  the  bud  has  become  stocky  and  able 
to  support  itself,  what  remains  of  the  top  is  then  cut  away. 
The  cut  should  be  made  smooth  and  waxed  over  or  painted  with 
rubber  paint.  This  helps  the  wound  in  healing  over  and  pro- 
tects the  stock  from  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  Buds  left  to 
lie  dormant  through  the  winter  are  "  started  "  in  the  spring, 
just  as  soon  as  the  trees  begin  to  show  signs  of  growth.  Great 
care  should  be  used  in  the  cutting  of  the  top,  that  it  be  done  at 
the  proper  time,  and  that  the  top  be  not  cut  so  near  the  bud  as 
to  endanger  it.  It  is  advisable  to  always  leave  a  little  foliage 
on  the  stock,  to  avoid  a  too  great  shock  by  the  removal  of  the 
entire  top  and  its  functions,  which  in  many  cases  causes  the 
death  of  the  bud  and  the  dwarfing  of  the  stock. 

When  the  stocks  put  forth  in  the  spring  the  buds  generally 
start  also.  The  suckers,  being  very  tender,  are  removed  by 
hand  (thumb-pruning),  breaking  at  the  touch.  Cutting  them 
with  a  sharp  knife  has  the  advantage  that  no  others  will  grow 
where  so  cut,  and  the  cut  being  made  clean  will  give  the  tree 
a  smooth  body,  and  as  the  tree  grows  very  little  suckering  will 
be  required.  When  the  suckers  become  strong  and  are  removed 
by  rubbing  with  the  hand,  the  trunks  generally  become  rough 
and  suckering  becomes  much  greater. 

As  the  buds  continue  to  grow,  they  are  loosely  tied  with 


THE   ORANGE   IN   CALIFORNIA — BUDDING. 


95 


soft  twine  or  rope  either  to  the  remaining  portion  of  the  stock 
or  to  laths  driven  alongside.  By  this  practice  the  trees  will 
grow  straight  and  symmetrical. 

Growing  Budded  Trees  in  the  Nursery  Without  Staking.— 

The  buds  are  allowed  to  grow  till  they  show  signs  of  drooping. 
They  are  then  pinched  at  the  top.  The  growth  is  arrested; 
the  stock  becomes  firm  and  erect.  The  bud  starts  several  new 
growths.  One  of  these  growths,  generally  the  center,  is  allowed 
to  make  an  upward  growth  and  the  rival  growths  removed. 
As  this  growth  advances  and,  like  the  first,  begins  to  droop, 
it  is  again  pinched,  when  it  again  assumes  an  upright  position 
and  starts  its  multiple  growths.  From  these,  as  before,  is- 
selected  a  growth  to  further  advance  the  height  of  the  tree. 
When  the  tree  has  arrived  at  its  proper  height  for  the  crown, 
allow  all  the  growths  from  the  last  pinching  to  remain  and  the 
tree  to  form  its  desired  head.  Trees  grown  in  this  manner  are 
stronger  than  those  that  have  had  the  support  of  stakes. 


WORKING  OVER  LARGE  ORANGE  TREES. 


Large  orange  trees 
are  somewhat  diffi- 
cult to  bud,  owing  to 
the  extreme  thick- 
ness of  the  bark  and 
the  inactivity  of  flow 
of  sap  at  the  space 
where  the  buds  are 
generally  inserted. 
Neither  does  the 
bark  "slip"  as  easily 
as  on  y  o  u  n  g  e  r 
stocks.  Three  meth- 
ods of  working  over 
large  trees  are  prac- 
ticed in  the  southern 
citrus  counties.  One 
is  to  bud  into  the 
large  limbs  near  the 
crotch;  the  second  is 


Orange  tree  budded  over,  showing  the  buds  start- 
ing, and  trunk  whitewashed  for  protection. 


96 


STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


to  cut  the  tree  back  in  the  spring  and  to  bud  into  the  young 
shoots;  and  the  third  is  to  bud  high  into  the  limbs,  either  into 
the  old  wood  or  on  the  new  shoots  as  they  put  forth  after  the 
trees  are  topped. 

Unless  the  buds  are  inserted  reasonably  early  the  entire  tops 
are  not  cut  back  until  the  spring  following.  It  is  best  to  cut 
back  a  portion  of  the  foliage  of  the  limbs  to  induce  the  buds  to 
start  without  giving  the  trees  too  severe  a  shock,  and  to  allow  the 

buds  to  grow  at  will  with  the  rest 
of  the  foliage  through  the  winter. 
From  two  to  five  of  the  large  side 
limbs  are  left  to  grow,  as  a  pro- 
tection to  the  buds  from  frost, 
and  to  induce  the  flow  of  sap  to 
the  buds. 

*  "I  believe  the  lack  of  success 
in  budding  old  trees  arose  fre- 
quently from  the  fact  that  it  was 
deferred  until  too  late  in  the 
spring,  when  the  sap  was  in  the 
top  of  the  trees,  passing  by  the 
bud  in  its  haste  to  get  higher  up, 
and  the  best  success  has  come 
from  buds  inserted  as  the  sap  got 
to  be  active  at  the  point  of  inser- 
tion." 

Budding  Large  Trees  in  the 
Fall. — At  a  meeting  of  the  Riv- 

orange  tree  cut  back  to  force  it    erside    Horticultural    Club,    Mr. 

Bryan,  a  noted  horticulturist, 
recommended  inserting  the  bud 
from  below,  and  pushing  it  up 

instead  of  the  usual  way  of  pushing  it  down,  thereby  insur- 
ing better  protection  from  damage  by  rain.  Waxed  cloth, 
he  said,  was  the  best  for  tying.  In  regard  to  the  treatment  of 
the  tree  when  the  buds  are  fully  set,  he  favored  leaving  a 
portion  of  the  old  wood  and  foliage  to  bear  fruit  for  a  time  as 
a  protection  from  the  fierce  rays  of  the  sun  in  July  and  August. 
The  heroic  treatment  of  cutting  the  tree  right  back,  which 
*J.  E.  Cutter,  before  Riverside  Horticultural  Club,  June,  1896. 


to  throw  out  shoots  from  the  main 
branches, which  are  budded ;  the  body 
of  tree  being  protected  with  burlap. 


THE   ORANGE    IN   CALIFORNIA — BUDDING. 


97 


might  rightly  be  called  '*  beheading  system,"  he  could  not 
indorse.  It  was  found  that  a  much  better  way  was  to  girdle 
the  limbs  just  above  the  new  buds,  to  be  done  with  a  knife, 
slanting  away  from  the  bud.  In  old  trees  several  buds  can  be 
inserted  on  large  limbs,  thus  giving  greater  assurances  of 
success. 

Many  budders  remove  from  the  limb,  above  the  bud,  a  ring 
of  bark,  about  an  inch  wide,  which  induces  it  to  start.  The 
bud  is  left  to  grow  at  will  until  the  following  spring,  when  the 
branches  are  finally  removed,  and  the  buds  which  have  had  a 
season's  start  are  made  to  assume  the  functions  of  the  top. 

Protecting  the  Trunks  of  Large  Trees.— As  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  the  removal  of  the  tops  the  ends  of  all  limbs  cut  are 
waxed  over.  The  trunks  are  then  treated  with  a  heavy  coat  of 
whitewash,  or  wrapped  with  sacks  to  prevent  them  from  being 
scorched  by  the  hot  sun.  Water  is  applied,  and  everything 
possible  done  to  cause  the  tree  and  buds  to  start  without  being 
injured.  But  these  precautions  are  not  as  necessary  where  the 
gradual  process  is  practiced. 


Large  seedling  orange  trees  changed  over  by  budding  in  the  branches. 

Budding  Large  Trees  in  the  Branches. — The  rules  laid 
down  for  budding  large  trees  in  the  main  branches  close  to  the 
trunk  apply  with  equal  force  to  budding  large  trees  in  the 
branches  higher  up,  and  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  illus- 

7c 


98  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

tration.  The  main  limbs  are  cleared  of  all  brush  long  before 
the  time  of  budding.  They  are  budded  in  the  spring  or  in  the 
fall.  If  budded  in  the  fall  the  buds  are  allowed  to  lie  dormant 
through  the  winter  and  started  in  the  spring.  The  buds  are 
inserted  in  the  limbs,  and  when  they  have  "taken"  the  tops 
are  gradually  removed,  leaving  the  side  limbs  to  grow  for 
awhile  to  prevent  the  flowing  sap  from  relaxing,  which  keeps 
the  buds  growing  until  they  assume  the  functions  of  the  top. 
These  side  limbs  are  then  removed,  and  the  trunks  and  limbs 
are  given  a  thick  coating  of  whitewash  to  prevent  sunburn, etc. 

Beheading  System. — This  system  is  successfully  practiced 
by  several  experienced  budders  of  Riverside.  0.  D.  Wilhite,  a 
gentleman  of  long  experience,  treats  his  trees  before  budding  by 
removing  all  limbs  (below  the  line  of  buds)  that  are  not  needed 
in  the  process  of  budding.  He  further  treats  the  remaining 
limbs  by  removing  the  small  branches  near  the  line  of  buds, 
to  induce  flow  of  sap  at  points  where  the  buds  are  to  be 
inserted.  By  this  double  removal  he  concentrates  the  flow  of 
sap  over  a  limited  part  of  the  tree  and  also  at  the  special  line 
of  bud  insertion.  This  service  is  done  in  the  early  spring. 
When  the  tree  responds  by  increased  growth,  as  it  soon  will, 
the  sap  is  circulating  in  vigor  and  the  buds  are  inserted.  The 
treatment  of  the  buds  is  the  same  as  for  nursery  budding. 
Immediately  after  insertion  they  are  tightly  covered  with 
waxed  cloth.  The  coverings  are  allowed  to  remain  about 
three  weeks,  or  until  such  time  as  the  buds  are  well  established. 
They  are  then  removed,  and  where  the  buds  have  not  taken, 
new  buds  are  inserted.  Wherever  a  sufficient  number  of  buds 
have  taken,  the  top  is  entirely  removed  and  the  wounds 
covered  with  heated  wax.  In  processing  the  tree  for  protection 
from  injury  by  the  sun  a  heavy  coat  of  whitewash  is  applied 
before  the  removal  of  the  limbs.  This  coating  is  carried  above 
the  point  of  cutting  and  over  the  waxed  cloth.  This  insures 
the  whole  surface  to  be  covered  with  the  lime  except  a  band 
where  the  cloth  rests.  When  the  cloth  is  removed  the  clear 
strip  beneath  can  easily  be  seen  in  future  observations  of  the 
buds.  The  first  treatment  of  the  tree  is  to  let  all  new  sprouts 
grow.  These  will  appear  over  the  entire  tree  surface,  and  will 
keep  the  sap  in  motion  and  the  roots  in  action.  The  first 
handling  is  to  pinch  the  fast  growing  buds  to  strengthen  their 
trunks,  and  to  remove  a  few  of  the  sprouts  which  have  grown 


100  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

near  them  and  threaten  to  smother  them.  As  the  buds  grow 
the  remaining  sprouts  are  from  time  to  time  removed,  being 
careful,  early  in  their  growth,  to  keep  a  sufficient  sprout  growth 
to  maintain  a  rapid  flow  of  sap.  The  top  of  the  tree  should 
now  be  free  from  sprouts  and  occupied  only  by  the  buds.  The 
bud  growth  must  be  often  pinched,  to  prevent  a  long,  straggling, 
weak  growth.  As  the  crown  of  bud  growth  increases,  all  sprouts 
are  removed  from  the  trunk.  Large  trees  treated  in  this 
manner  should  appear  with  a  solid  bud  growth,  as  in  the  illus- 
tration (Plate  IX,  page  99). 

In  some  portions  of  the  State  the  buds  are 
troubled  by  the  leaf-eating  beetle.  Aramigus  ful- 
leri,  which  climbs  the  trees  and  feeds  on  the  ten- 
der leaves  and  tip  ends  of  the  buds.  To  keep  the 
beetles  from  ascending  the  trees,  bands  of  cotton- 
batting  are  placed  on  the  trunks  of  the  trees  below 

Fuller's     Rose 

Beetle  —  natural  the  buds.     These  bands  are  removed  from  time 

size  and  enlarged.  to 


PLANTING. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil.  —The  land  should  be  thoroughly 
worked  through  the  winter  and  prepared  to  be  planted  in  the 
spring,  when  it  becomes  warmer.  All  weeds  and  stubble  should 
be  plowed  under;  these  will  decompose  and  serve  as  a  fertilizer 
to  the  orchard.  The  thorough  working  of  the  soil  liberates 
crude  gases  and  changes  the  nutritive  principles  to  a  form  more 
readily  assimilated  by  the  tree. 

*  "  The  question  is  often  propounded  to  us  how  to  prepare 
the  land  before  planting  the  orange  tree.     Our  advice  to  all 
contemplating  planting  is  to  first  have  a  thorough  survey  of  the 
land  to  be  planted;  then  thoroughly  grade  same,  so  that  water 
can  be  successfully  carried  to  every  tree.     Here  is  where  many 
make  a  fatal  mistake;  they  undertake  to  grade  the  land  by 
the  "eye,"  and  find  after  they  have  planted  their  grove  that  it  is 
impossible  to  properly  water  all  trees  in  the  grove;  then  their 
lifelong  trouble  begins.     So  we  would  say  most  emphatically, 
always  have  your  land  well  graded.     When  this  is  properly 

*  B.  F.  Dixon,  in  essay  before  Escondido  Farmers'  Institute,  Nov.,  1896. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — PLANTING.  101 

done,  plow  the  land  at  least  twelve  inches  deep.  Let  the  land 
lie  until  it  has  been  thoroughly  settled  by  rains  or  by  irriga- 
tion, then  plow  again,  if  possible  some  deeper  than  the  first 
plowing.  Thoroughly  pulverize  the  soil  by  harrowing.  Go  to 
the  nursery  and  see  that  your  trees  are  dug  with  good  roots, 
and  tops  well  cut  back  and  all  leaves  removed  from  the  trees 
ibefore  they  are  lifted  from  nursery  rows;  have  roots  immedi- 
ately puddled,  then  packed  so  as  to  retain  all  moisture  and 
exclude  sunshine  and  wind.  As  fast  as  the  trees  are  planted 
in  orchard  form,  each  tree  should  receive  at  least  twenty-five 
gallons  of  water  to  thoroughly  settle  the  soil.  As  soon  as  the 
soil  is  in  good  condition  cultivate  thoroughly." 

A  great  mistake  is  often  made  by  careless  planters  in  digging 
small  holes,  just  large  enough  to  crowd  the  roots  into.  In 
these  the  trees  are  forced,  the  roots  being  twisted  out  of  shape, 
with  no  regard  to  their  proper  position,  and  as  a  result  the  trees 
make  a  stunted  and  unhealthy  growth.  The  holes  should  be 
both  deep  and  broad.  It  is  best  to  dig  the  hole  deeper  than 
needed;  then  fill  up  the  bottom  with  a  cone  of  surface  soil, 
and  in  the  apex  of  this  cone  a  hole  is  made  with  a  shovel-handle 
to  receive  the  taproot.  The  laterals  are  then  carefully  spread 
out  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  position  occupied  in  the 
nursery,  and  the  hole  filled  up.  The  tree  should  be  planted  a 
little  deeper  than  it  originally  grew,  and  when  it  is  set  should 
be  pulled  up  with  a  gentle  shaking  motion  to  its  proper  height. 
This  will  settle  the  soil  about  the  small  roots.  A  bucket  of 
water  is  now  applied,  which  will  still  further  settle  the  soil. 
As  soon  as  the  water  has  disappeared  a  little  fresh  soil  is  put 
over  the  basin,  to  prevent  evaporation  and  to  keep  the  tree  from 
leaning.  Trees  planted  with  these  precautions  make  the  best 
growth  and  become  the  thriftiest. 

Time  of  Planting. — The  orange,  being  an  evergreen,  can  be 
planted  at  any  time  in  the  year  when  the  conditions  are  favor- 
able, and  this  is  determined  by  the  condition  of  the  tree  and 
the  season.  The  orange  tree  makes  several  growths  during 
the  season,  varying  in  number  and  season  with  different 
varieties  and  different  seasons.  But  there  are  periods  when 
all  orange  trees  are  dormant,  and  others  when  nearly  all  are 
active.  In  transplanting,  the  trees  should  be  taken  at  their 
dormant  stage,  as  the  shock  of  removal  will  not  then  be  so 


102  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

severe  and  the  tree  will  more  quickly  recover.  These  dormant 
periods  usually  occur  about  four  times  in  the  year:  from  the 
middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  April,  in  June,  in  September, 
and  from  the  middle  of  November  to  the  middle  of  December. 
The  warmer  season  is  the  best  for  planting.  Trees  transplanted 
in  the  winter  when  the  ground  is  cold  will  remain  until  spring 
without  growing.  It  is  therefore  better  to  transplant  when  the 
ground  is  warm.  The  nearer  an  orange  tree  is  to  starting  new 
growth  the  greater  its  strength  and  root  power.  This  is  the 
best  time  for  transplanting — after  they  have  made  their  first 
growth  and  before  starting  the  second  time  in  the  spring. 

Trees  designed  for  transplanting  should  be  pruned  a  week  or 
ten  days  before  they  are  removed  from  the  nursery.  This 
enables  them  to  recover  from  the  shock  of  pruning  before  being 
subjected  to  the  shock  of  removal. 

In  the  selection  of  trees  it  will  always  be  found  most  profit- 
able to  get  the  best,  even  though  the  first  cost  may  be  a  little 
more.  Scrubby,  neglected,  ill-grown  trees  are  dear  as  a  gift, 
and  will  never  repay  the  care  required  in  their  culture.  If  the 
trees  for  the  orchard  are  to  be  purchased  they  should  be  pro- 
cured from  some  well-known  and  reliable  nurseryman,  who 
will  guarantee  them  true  to  name.  Only  clean,  healthy,  well- 
grown  trees  should  be  accepted. 

Setting  Out  the  Orchard.— In  laying  off  the  orchard  it  is 
desirable  to  have  it  symmetrical  and  to  economize  the  land. 
A  little  thought  and  care  displayed  at  the  commencement  will 
save  much  annoyance  in  after  years^  and  it  is  no  greater  task 
to  have  the  orchard  neat  in  appearance  and  symmetrical  in 
outline  than  to  have  it  in  a  haphazard  condition.  There  are 
three  objects  to  be  considered  in  laying  out  the  orchard:  sym- 
metry of  appearance,  economy  of  space,  and  facilty  for  future 
care.  Of  course  the  first  thing  is  to  get  the  trees  in  straight 
rows,  at  equal  distances  apart,  and  every  one  thinks  he  can 
accomplish  this.  But  there  are  various  methods  of  disposing 
of  the  straight  row,  and  these  methods  all  have  their  advocates, 
and  each  one  its  advantages.  The  principal  forms  are  the 
square,  the  quincunx,  and  the  hexagonal  or  septuple.  The 
methods  most  common  in  use  are  the  square  and  the  quincunx 
systems.  The  most  generally  adopted  is  the  square  system,  as 
the  orchard  can  be  changed  to  quincunx  after  being  planted, 
even  after  a  number  of  years  of  growth. 


THE    ORANGE    IN   CALIFORNIA — PLANTING. 


103 


PLANTING  SYSTEMS. 


In  order  that  the  most 
approved  planting  sys- 
tems may  be  better  under- 
stood, they  are  illustrated 
to  show  how  the  orchard 
is  first  laid  out,  and  how 
the  trees  look  after  several 
years  of  growth. 

The    Square   System. 

This  is  the  most  approved 
method.  The  orchard  is 
laid  off  in  lines  crossing 
each  other,  with  equal  in- 
tervals of  space,  and  a  tree 
planted  at  each  crossing  of 
the  lines.  By  the  square 
method,  at  twenty  feet 
apart,  one  hundred  and 
eight  trees  are  planted  to 
the  acre.  The  preferable 


t- lr- V- kr ^ 

^  £Nt 


J''\L. 


-_ U- .U jr U L 

* U, k..™L U L 

!  1      i 

U JU_ JU U „«,. U 


4, 


4. 


4.     4 


C 


ft. 


.......  - 


*. 


• 


4. 


Quincunx  System. 


The  Square  System. 

distances  for  planting  are 
twenty  feet  for  dwarf  varie- 
ties, twenty-four  feet  for 
Navels  and  Mediterranean 
Sweets,  and  thirty  feet  for 
all  seedling  types. 

Quincunx  System.— In 

this  system  the  orchard  is 
laid  off  in  the  same  manner 
as  for  square  planting,  ex- 
cept that  the  number  of 
rows  are  doubled,  and  a 
tree  planted  in  the  center 
of  every  square.  This 
method  is  chiefly  used  in 
planting  with  the  idea  of 
removing  the  center  trees 
(which  are  generally  dwarf) 
when  those  designed  to  be 
permanent  shall  have  at- 


104 


STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 


,..JU,V...U I* !*._„.  J«-....i«.,...l* U. 


:  .•'"-.  !  /: '"'!-..  \         '*KH 

j. .  .,.Ur.:.. . lls» .  j. . . iff. ..  ..\z:. }.".-.J«-. 1?.  - ; .V-vU- 1*- 

k«-  :    1^  :    '-U-       I*.      '-U^       U '  ''  •  4--        U     •- 


4-4. 


flu 


Hexagonal,  or  Septuple,  System. 

trees  are  planted  to  an  acre. 

Triangular,  or  Alter- 
nate, System. — In  laying 
out  an  orchard  by  this  sys- 
tem, the  lines  are  run  form- 
ing a  square,  as  in  the 
square  system;  a  line  is 
then  run  diagonally  across, 
and  a  tree  planted  alter- 
nately, forming  a  triangle. 
The  advantage  in  this  sys- 
tem is  that  the  trees  are 
given  more  space,  and  can 
be  planted  closer  together 
without  crowding. 

The  following  table  will 
show  the  number  of  trees 
to  the  acre  by  the  square, 
quincunx,  and  hexagonal 
or  septuple  systems : 


k 


U-.. 


tained  a  considerable  size; 
the  orchard  then  assumes 
the  square  plan.  At  twenty 
feet  apart,  one  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  trees  are  plant- 
ed to  an  acre  by  this  method. 

Hexagonal,  or  Septu- 
ple, System. — In  this  sys- 
tem the  trees  are  equilateral 
(equally  distant  from  each 
other)  and  more  completely 
fill  the  space  than  any  other 
system  can.  Six  trees  form 
a  hexagon  and  inclose  a 
seventh.  The  lines  in  the 
figure  indicate  the  method 
of  laying  out  the  orchard. 
By  the  hexagonal  system, 
at  twenty  feet  apart,  one 
hundred  and  twentv-six 


V- ^ 


4. 


4. 


.  .4. 


Triangular,  or  Alternate,  System. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — SOILS. 


105 


Distance  apart. 

Square. 

Hexagonal 
or  Septuple. 

Quincunx. 

10  feet                                     -. 

436 

500 

831 

12  feet                                   .-     

303 

347 

571 

14  feet 

222 

255 

415 

IQ'feet 

170 

195 

313 

18  feet 

134 

154 

247 

20  feet                     .                 

108 

126 

199 

22  feet 

90 

103 

173 

24  feet 

76 

86 

137 

30  feet 

48 

56 

83 

NOTE. — In  giving  the  distances  of  trees  of  the  quincunx,  the  fifth  or  central 
tree  is  not  taken  into  account. 

For  any  distances  not  given  in  the  above  data  calculate  the 
number  of  trees  to  the  acre  by  the  square  system,  and  add 
fifteen  per  cent.  This  will  give  the  number  if  planted  septuple. 


SOILS. 

An  old  saying  among  orange-growers,  and  in  which  there  is 
much  truth,  is  that  "the  orange  tree  must  have  its  feet  dry"; 
in  other  words,  what  is  true  of  the  requirements  of  all  fruit 
trees,  is  especially  so  of  the  orange,  and  the  soil  upon  which  it 
is  planted  must  be  well  drained.  It  should  never  be  planted 
on  heavy,  low  ground,  or  on  low,  damp  ground,  where  water 
can  be  reached  within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface,  and  never  on 
black  adobe  soil.  A  rich,  porous  soil  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
give  the  tree  a  vigorous  growth.  A  deep  alluvium  intermixed 
with  decomposed  granite  or  limestone,  with  a  porous  subsoil, 
offers  the  best  conditions  in  soil.  A  hardpan  soil  is  to  be 
avoided.  At  Redlands,  in  San  Bernardino  County,  the  soil  is, 
as  its  name  indicates,  a  deep  red,  composed  largely  of  disinte- 
grated granite,  with  a  large  percentage  of  oxide  of  iron.  The 
oranges  grown  there  are  of  a  deeper  color  than  those  produced 
in  most  other  sections.  At  Riverside  the  soil  is  largely  of  the 
same  character,  and  much  of  it,  approaching  the  hills,  a  sharp 
granitic  grit.  The  same  general  characteristics  of  soil  prevail 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  orange  section  of  Southern  Califor- 
nia, the  land  varying  as  to  the  admixture  of  sand,  some  being 
more  and  some  less  of  a  sandy  nature. 


106  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

*uThe  orange  is  not  overchoice  as  to  whether  the  soil  is 
granite,  sandy  loam,  or  red  soil.  Either  of  these  kinds  of  soil 
stands  watering  thoroughly  and  can  be  kept  in  good  con- 
dition without  an  extra  amount  of  culture.  The  l adobe'  land 
has  probably  more  strength  of  richness  than  either  of  the  other 
soils  named,  but  we  should  prefer  it  to  be  some  other  fellow 
who  would  successfully  grow  orange  groves  on  '  adobe.' " 

The  best  citrus  fruits  are  those  produced  on  the  higher 
lands,  which  are  naturally  warm  and  well  drained,  and  the 
best  orange  lands  of  our  State  are  those  having  the  higher 
altitude. 

A  southern  exposure  is  usually  the  best  for  an  orange 
orchard,  and  it  is  better  if  sheltered  from  strong  prevailing 
winds.  Where  the  winds  are  very  strong,  it  is  customary  to 
plant  windbreaks  on  the  windward  side  of  each  five  or  ten 
acres,  for  protection.  These  windbreaks  usually  consist  of 
alternate  eucalyptus  and  pepper  trees,  planted  close  together, 
usually  ten  or  twelve  feet  apart.  The  pepper  is  a  dense,  low- 
growing  tree,  while  the  eucalyptus  runs  up,  and  the  combina- 
tion makes  a  tall,  solid  wall  capable  of  offering  great  resist- 
ance to  the  wind.  Both  are  very  rapid  growing  trees,  and 
in  a  short  time  give  complete  protection  to  the  orchard.  The 
Monterey  cypress  is  also  commonly  used  for  windbreaks,  for 
which  purpose  the  trees  are  planted  from  six  to  eight  feet  apart. 


IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation  and  cultivation  are  closely  associated.  It  has 
come  to  be  accepted  as  a  truism  that  citrus  fruits  must  be 
grown  on  irrigated  land.  The  method  and  frequency  of  irriga- 
tion and  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  applied  were  subjects  of 
discussion  for  a  long  time,  and  the  orange-growers  formed 
opposing  schools  of  irrigators  and  cultivators — the  former 
advocating  a  plentiful  and  frequent  application  of  water,  and 
the  latter  little  if  any  irrigation  but  frequent  cultivation.  As 
is  usual  in  such  cases  the  mean  was  reached,  and  the  practice 
to-day  is  thorough  cultivation  with  enough  irrigation.  When 
the  young  trees  are  first  set  out  they  must  have  enough  water 

*B.  F.  Dixon,  in  essay  before  Farmers'  Institute,  Escondido,  1896. 


108 


STATE    BOARD   OF    HORTICULTURE. 


to  insure  their  growth,  for  the  tender  and  lacerated  roots,  with- 
out a  firm  foothold  in  the  soil,  cannot  withstand  a  long  dry 
season;  but  after  the  first  year  the  trees  will  grow  with  little 


IRRIGATING— THE  OLD  WAY. 

The  furrows  were  made  with  the  plow,  and  water  run  through  in  large  streams 
thereby  cutting  up  the  land  and  washing  away  the  available  plant- food. 

if  any  irrigation,  if  well  cultivated,  although  in  most  cases 
they  are  watered  from  two  to  seven  times  in  the  season.  When 
the  orchard  comes  into  bearing,  however,  the  trees  must  be 
copiously  watered,  or  the  fruit  will  be  small. 


THE  BASIN  SYSTEM  OF  IRRIGATION. 
The  orchard  is  laid  out  in  square  basins,  ready  to  run  water  into  them. 

Of  the  methods  of  irrigation,  the  simplest,  best,  and  most 
generally  used,  is  the  furrow  system,  in  which  several  furrows 
are  plowed  between  the  rows  of  trees,  the  first  one  about  three 


, 


THE    ORANGE   IN    CALIFORNIA — CULTIVATION.  109 

feet  distant  from  the  trunks,  and  down  these  the  water  is  allowed 
to  flow  gradually  until  the  ground  is  thoroughly  saturated. 

Irrigation  by  the  basin  method  is  performed  by  hollowing  out 
a  basin  around  each  tree,  with  a  diameter  equal  to  the  spread  of 
the  branches;  into  this  the  water  is  run,  and  when  filled  is 
conducted  to  the  next,  and  so  on,  until  all  the  basins  have  been 
filled.  These  are  sometimes  filled  two  or  three  times,  until  the 
soil  will  absorb  no  more  water.  By  this  method  care  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  water  coming  in  contact  with  the  trunks 
of  the  trees,  or  they  will  become  scalded  and  gum  disease  will 
result.  A  cone  of  earth  is  usually  banked  up  around  to  prevent 
this,  but  must  be  broken  and  leveled  off  after  each  application 
of  water;  if  not,  bad  results  follow,  such  as  the  breaking  out  of 
gum,  etc. 


CULTIVATION. 

Much  of  the  success  of  the  orange  orchard  depends  upon 
cultivation.  If  this  be  carelessly  done  or  entirely  neglected 
the  best  results  from  the  trees  are  not  to  be  expected.  Culti- 
vation is  imperatively  needed  by  the  orange  grove,  from  the 
fact  that  the  orange  does  best  upon  irrigated  lands,  and  irriga- 
tion and  cultivation  must  go  hand  in  hand.  If  water  is 
applied  to  the  orchard  and  it  is  left  without  cultivation  the 
soil  bakes  hard,  cracks,  the  moisture  escapes,  and  the  trees 
suffer.  It  is  the  rule,  and  one  established  by  experience,  to 
cultivate  after  each  irrigation,  just  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
sufficiently  dry  to  permit  a  horse  to  travel  over  it,  usually  in 
two  or  three  days  after  the  application  of  water.  The  soil 
must  be  kept  mellow  and  free  from  weeds  at  all  times.  Many 
of  the  leading  orange-growers  plow  in  the  fall  before  the 
winter  rains,  turning  the  furrows  toward  the  trees,  and  harrow- 
ing the  land  after.  This  leaves  the  trees  on  a  ridge  with  the 
dead  furrow  in  the  middle  of  the  rows  and  serves  to  drain  the 
surplus  water  from  the  trees.  During  the  winter  season  the 
ground  is  naturally  cold,  and  allowing  the  tree  to  stand  in 
water  is  very  detrimental  to  it.  In  the  spring  a  second  plow- 
ing from  the  trees  to  the  middle  fills  up  the  dead  furrow  and 
leaves  the  ground  smooth  for  the  summer. 


110 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


The  ground  should  be  cultivated  close  to  the  trees,  which 
can  easily  be  effected  by  the  use  of  a  short  whiffletree.  Care 
must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  damage  or  wound  the  trees,  and 
it  is  a  wise  precaution  to  wrap  the  end  of  the  singletree  with 
cloth — a  barley  sack  or  something  similar — to  keep  it  from 
barking  the  trees  in  case  of  contact.  A  careful  driver  and  a 
steady  horse  should  do  the  work,  and  the  danger  of  damage  to 
the  trees  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

In  regard  to  the  implements  to  be  used  the  orchardist  must 
exercise  his  best  judgment  and  consider  the  nature  of  the  soil  to 
be  worked.  There  are  a  large  number  of  good  cultivators  on  the 
market,  some  adapted  to  heavy,  others  to  light,  and  others  to 
gravelly  soil.  The  orchardist  should  ascertain  those  best  suited 
to  the  requirements  of  his  particular  work,  and  secure  them. 


The  subsoil  plow,  drawn  by  eight  mules,  in  the  Windermere  orchards,  La  Mirada. 

SUBSOIL    PLOW.* 

CAN  THE  NECESSITY  FOR  ITS  USE  BE  AVOIDED. 

Citrus  fruit  growers  have  made  a  great  advance  in  the  science 
and  practice  of  orchard  cultivation  during  the  last  decade. 
How  great,  I  do  not  think  we  appreciate  until  we  carefully 
review  the  cruder  methods  and  more  or  less  mistaken  notions 


*  Essay  by  J.  H.  Reed,  of  Riverside,  read  at  the  Highgrove  and  Pasadena 
Farmers'  Institute,  January,  1900. 


THE   ORANGE   IN    CALIFORNIA — CULTIVATION.  Ill 

prevailing  ten  years  ago.  But  in  spite  of  the  much  we  have 
learned,  new  problems  arise  continually,  which  require  new 
study.  Just  now  one  that  is  attracting  considerable  attention 
is  the  difficulty  found,  especially  in  some  of  our  older  orchards, 
of  getting  the  soil  to  take  irrigating  water  as  readily  as  is  desir- 
able. The  cause  is  found  in  a  hard  stratum  of  earth  just  under 
the  cultivated  portion,  varying  in  thickness  from  a  few  inches 
to  a  foot  or  more,  which  is  sometimes  almost  impervious  to 
water.  The  result  is,  difficulty  in  keeping  the  root  stratum 
underneath  sufficiently  moist.  This  hard  layer  is  doubtless 
caused  by  frequent  wetting  and  drying  out.  Not  being  dis- 
turbed, it  becomes  harder  after  each  irrigation,  the  same  as  the 
surface  would  if  not  carefully  stirred,  only  to  a  lesser  degree. 
The  cultivator  shovels  constantly  running  over  this  layer  also 
has  a  firming  effect  on  it.  The  first  question  is,  how  best  to 
get  rid  of  this  objectionable  stratum  of  earth.  In  the  East,  we 
remember,  that  it  is  very  desirable  to  break  up  the  subsoil 
without  bringing  it  to  the  surface.  This  their  modern  subsoil 
plow  does  effectually.  The  plow  is  now  being  introduced  here 
for  the  purpose  of  breaking  up  this  hard  layer.  And  those  who 
have  tried  it,  so  far  as  I  can  ascertain,  seem  favorably  impressed 
with  the  results.  The  plow  is  usually  run  in  the  center  of  the 
spaces  between  the  trees  once  each  way  from  twelve  to  sixteen 
inches  deep.  It  does  not  disturb  the  surface  further  than  the 
mark  left  by  the  thin  standard,  but  lifts  the  subsoil  sufficiently 
to  break  it  up  to  the  width  of  twelve  to  twenty  inches  on  each 
side.  The  draught,  where  the  ground  has  become  hard,  is 
necessarily  heavy,  even  with  the  small  shoe  and  thin  standard, 
requiring  from  six  to  eight  good  horses.  These  narrow  broken 
spaces  take  in  the  water  very  rapidly.  How  long  it  will  take 
it  to  work  out  under  the  unbroken  squares  till  the  entire  root- 
bed  is  wetted,  and  how  permanent  may  be  the  results,  are  ques- 
tions yet  to  be  determined.  If  the  same  general  treatment  of 
the  orchard  is  followed,  the  hard  layer  will  doubtless  gradually 
re-form,  and  this  special  process  need  to  be  repeated. 

An  important  consideration  is  the  effect  of  the  disturbance 
of  the  roots  necessarily  made  by  this  deep  plow.  I  have  not 
been  able  to  see  its  workings  in  an  old  orchard.  In  orchards 
seven  to  ten  years  old  the  leaders  at  that  distance  from  the 
trees  have  not  become  large.  But  the  root  stratum  commenc- 
ing immediately  below  the  cultivated  portion,  to  an  indefinite 


112  STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

depth,  covers  the  entire  area  between  trees,  even  at  an  early 
age  of  the  orchard.  This  is  crowded  with  roots,  from  the 
minutest  fibers  to  the  largest  branches  of  the  leaders  found  in 
running  the  plow  fourteen  inches  deep  in  an  eight-year-old 
orchard.  Many  roots  were  cut  from  three  eighths  of  an  inch 
down.  To  get  the  full  force  of  this,  we  must  remember  that  a 
root  even  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick  may  extend  for  yards 
from  the  point  where  severed,  with  its  thousands  of  branchlets 
bearing  the  minute  hair  appendages  that  take  up  the  tree's 
nutriment. 

This  makes  pretty  severe  root  pruning.  How  great  the 
injury  this  will  occasion,  considering  the  great  mass  of  roots 
from  which  such  trees  gain  their  support,  and  how  quick  the 
recuperation  after  injury,  I  can  yet  form  no  opinion  of  any 
value.  But  certainly  there  will  be  a  lot  of  root  growth  to  be 
made  up,  and  in  the  meantime  a  lot  of  little  mouths  lacking  to 
take  up  the  food  of  the  tree.  But  there  may  be  cases  where 
the  advantage  to  remaining  roots  may  more  than  make  up  for 
this  loss.  In  any  event,  it  would  be  much  better  if  not  only 
this  root  pruning,  but  also  all  the  expense  connected  with  the 
deep  plowing,  were  not  necessary.  And  this  brings  me  to  the 
second  part  of  my  subject. 

Can  the  necessity  for  it  be  avoided  by  guarding  against  the 
formation  of  this  obstructing  layer  while  orchards  are  young? 
I  am  quite  of  the  opinion  that  it  may.  But  my  experience  has 
been  with  orchards  under  ten  years  old,  and  I  have  learned 
that  we  are  frequently  obliged  to  revise  opinions  very  confi- 
dently held,  as  our  actual  experience  extends  under  new  con- 
ditions, and  this  opinion  may  be  quite  wrong.  If  the  hard 
layer  is  occasioned  by  repeated  drying-out  after  irrigation,  a 
portion  of  that  stratum  should  be  thoroughly  broken  up  once 
or  twice  a  year  before  becoming  hard,  while  the  balance  of  it, 
I  think,  can  be  kept  from  hardening  by  careful  irrigation.  This 
opinion  is  based  on  a  good  many  years'  experience  in  all  soils 
from  the  sandy  loam  to  stiff  adobe,  without  any  of  this  trouble- 
some layer;  yet  you  will  allow  me  to  refer  to  this  experience  in 
illustrating — not  in  any  dogmatic  spirit,  for  every  year  more 
and  more  I  find  that  different  men  will  accomplish  the  same 
desired  results  best,  by  quite  different  means.  Once  a  year  we 
thoroughly  break  up  the  surface  with  a  walking  plow,  as  deep  as 
we  can  without  permanent  injury  to  the  root  system,  say  from 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — CULTIVATION.  113 

six  to  nine  inches.  In  our  earlier  planted  orchard  where  we 
did  not  commence  with  especially  deep  plowing,  we  have  trouble 
with  the  roots  even  at  six  inches.  In  our  later  plantings,  on 
deep  plowing,  repeated  each  season,  we  can  keep  a  depth  of 
seven  to  nine  inches  easily.  With  this  annual  plowing  we 
have  no  trouble  in  getting  the  water  into  the  ground  during 
the  irrigating  season.  We  aim  to  make  the  irrigation  most 
thorough  every  time.  As  aids  to  this,  I  want  to  mention  three 
things  that  we  have  found  of  great  importance: 

First — We  make  our  irrigating  furrows  as  nearly  the  depth 
of  the  annual  plowing  as  possible.  Thus  putting  the  water 
nearest  where  needed,  greatly  reducing  the  surface  saturation 
where  so  much  water  is  wasted,  and  facilitating  the  early 
covering  of  the  furrows  after  irrigation. 

Second — Any  portion  of  the  orchard  where  there  is  any 
special  occasion  we  cross-furrow  before  making  main  furrows. 
This  done,  with  a  little  hard  work  the  short  pieces  of  the  cross- 
furrows  are  easily  filled  and  kept  full.  (This  is  of  special 
advantage  among  large  trees  where  the  spaces  between  the 
furrows,  between  the  trees,  are  necessarily  wide.) 

Third — We  run  water  three  days  in  place  of  two,  total 
amount  of  water  the  same.  I  think  this  practice  may  be 
adopted  much  more  generally  than  it  has  been,  to  great 
advantage.  We  find  that  the  third  day  leaves  more  water  in 
the  ground  than  either  of  the  others.  By  this  method  of  irri- 
gation I  feel  quite  satisfied  that  the  root  strata  could  have 
been  kept  thoroughly  wet  in  spite  of  the  hard  layer,  in  any  of 
the  young  orchards  where  I  have  seen  the  subsoil  plow  used. 
In  older  orchards  where  this  layer  had  been  hardening  for 
years,  the  implement  may  prove  of  great  service.  Of  course 
even  in  young  orchards  the  desired  results  cannot  be  secured 
by  the  most  careful  irrigation;  except  the  water  when  once  in 
the  ground  is  conserved  by  proper  cultivation. 

Again,  I  would  like  to  refer  to  our  own  experiences.  Instead 
of  waiting  for  the  irrigating  furrows  to  become  dry  and  then 
breaking  them  up  thoroughly,  bringing  much  of  the  saturated 
earth  to  the  surface,  as  we  used  to  do,  as  soon  as  possible— 
often  within  twenty-four  hours — we  cover  the  furrows  instead 
of  breaking  them  up.  We  do  this  with  a  single  twelve-inch 
upright  plank,  dragged  lengthwise  with  the  furrows.  We 
attach  the  plank  to  the  shanks  of  an  old  two-horse  walking 
8c 


114  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

furrower.  This  fills  the  furrows  from  their  shoulders  and  leaves 
a  light  coat  of  pulverized  earth  on  the  rest  of  the  surface. 
The  object  is  to  stop  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the 
saturated  bottoms  of  the  furrows  as  soon  as  possible.  Others 
doubtless  have,  or  will  know,  better  methods  of  doing  this. 
For  cultivating,  for  several  years  we  used  the  Planet  Junior, 
with  the  widest  shovels,  for  the  purpose  of  moving  the  hard 
earth  at  the  bottom,  which  is  more  easily  done  than  with  the 
narrow  shovels.  But  the  objection  to  bringing  so  much  of  the 
damp  earth  to  the  surface  had  so  impressed  itself  upon  me, 
that  this  season  I  determined  to  try  the  Killfeler  cultivator, 
with  its  large  number  of  shovel-pointed  teeth,  which  thor- 
oughly stirs  all  the  ground  without  exposing  the  wet  earth. 
There  are  serious  objections  to  this  implement,  but  I  must 
confess  to  being  greatly  interested  in  the  results  from  it. 
Using  it  thoroughly  once  after  each  irrigation,  when  the 
ground  is  in  best  condition,  after  the  furrows  are  covered,  then 
keeping  the  surface  well  loosened  with  a  fine-tooth  harrow,  we 
have  been  able,  so  far  as  we  can  determine,  to  hold  the 
moisture  better  than  we  have  ever  succeeded  in  doing  before, 
and  we  find  no  signs  of  any  permanent  hard  layers  forming 
to  retard  irrigation. 


PETJNING. 

For  years  a  strong  contest  was  waged  between  the  advocates 
of  high  pruning  and  those  who  favored  low  pruning,  and  many 
arguments  were  urged  by  the  champions  of  each  system  in 
behalf  of  their  favorite  method.  Victory  finally  perched  upon 
the  banner  of  the  low-pruners,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  more 
recent  orange  orchards  have  been  trained  low,  experience  hav- 
ing demonstrated  that  in  our  peculiar  climate  and  in  the  dry 
soils  in  which  our  citrus  fruits  attain  their  best  condition,  low 
pruning  offers  great  advantages  over  the  rival  system. 

In  pruning  orange  trees,  especially  when  allowed  to  grow  for 
several  years  without  it, considerable  work  and  skill  are  required 
in  removing  the  surplus  inside  growth  and  limbs  without 
destroying  the  natural  symmetry  of  the  tree.  The  sun  should 
not  be  allowed  to  strike,  the  inside  woxxl  and  foliage,  as  it  is 


116 


STA.TE    BOARD   OF    HORTICULTURE. 


sure  to  scorch  the  bark  and  cause  the  fine  brush  to  die;  a  dis- 
eased tree  is  apt  to  result.  The  advice  so  often  given,  athat 
the  tree  be  opened  so  as  to  allow  plenty  of  air  and  sun  heat  to 
enter,"  does  not  hold  good  with  the  orange.  Whenever  the 
foliage  that  protects  the  trunk  and  main  branches  is  removed, 
the  inside  growth  is  left  exposed  to  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun. 
Trees  with  one  side  of  the  trunk  sunburned,  and  dead  bark, 
resulting  from  the  removal  of  the  brush  that  protected  it,  are 
not  uncommon  throughout  the  State. 

Low-trained  trees  protect  their  trunks  and  inner  growth  by 
the  shade  of  their  limbs  and  foliage,  and  the  ground  under- 
neath is  prevented  from  drying  out. 


Orange  orchard  pruned  high. 

*u  Experience  and  careful  observation  have  fully  satisfied 
the  members  of  this  club  that  the  formation  of  low  heads  is 
the  true  method  for  the  Washington  Navel  and  other  varieties 
of  budded  oranges.  The  shears  should  be  used  sparingly;  in 
fact,  scarcely  used  at  all  in  young  orchards,  at  least  for  six  or 
eight  years.  The  young  growth  should  be  guided  with  the 
definite  object  of  developing  a  close  and  systematic  head. 
J.  H.  Reed,  to  whom  I  am  much  indebted  in  writing  this  paper, 
for  definite  statements  in  regard  to  his  experimental  work,. 
says:  'As  to  pruning,  I  have  demonstrated  to  my  own  satis- 
faction at  least,  that  need  of  pruning  the  orange  can  be 

*From  report  of  J.  M.  Edmison  to  Riverside  Horticultural  Club,  February,. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — PRUNING.  117 

almost  entirely  avoided  by  suitable  clipping  during  the  early 
and  rapid  stages  of  growth,  while  the  lemon  needs  constant 
and  often  heavy  cutting  from  the  first.'  It  is  clearly  a  great 
mistake  to  cut  out  branches  and  thin  the  top.  as  we  sometimes 
hear,  to  let  the  sunlight  in.  Indeed,  to  keep  the  untempered 
heat  of  the  sun  out  from  the  tender  young  fruit  when  setting, 
and  to  give  shelter  from  the  desiccating  hot  northers  which 
sometimes  cause  the  destruction  of  almost  the  entire  crop  of  a 
young  orchard,  should  be  constantly  kept  in  view,  and  not  a 
leaf  should  be  removed  that  can  help  in  the  work.  Take  a 
Washington  Navel  tree  with  dense  foliage  of  a  rich,  dark  green, 
and  you  will  seldom  fail  to  have  a  bountiful  crop  of  choice 
fruit." 

The  illustration  on  the  opposite  page  shows  an  orchard  where 
the  lower  limbs  of  the  trees  have  been  removed,  leaving  a  clear 
stock,  so  as  to  allow  the  horse  in  cultivating  to  pass  under 
their  branches  and  the  cultivator  to  work  the  ground  close  to 
the  trunks.  No  under  support  is  left  to  the  branches,  and  they 
require  to  be  propped  with  poles,  and  have  to  be  tied  to  the 
main  limbs.  The  trunks  are  left  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  the 
ground  under  the  trees  invariably  "  bakes "  before  it  can  be 
worked. 

Citrus-tree  pruning  can  be  commenced  as  early  as  January 
and  continued  through  the  spring  months,  but  the  best  time  to 
prune  is  immediately  prior  to  the  season  of  blooming.  Oranges 
in  the  southern  counties  are  picked  from  December  to  June, 
and  pruning  follows  the  removal  of  the  crop,  and  is  regulated 
according  to  climatic  conditions  and  the  season.  In  the  north- 
ern counties  the  fruit  is  removed  much  earlier,  and  pruning  is 
pursued  accordingly. 

At  all  seasons  of  the  year  all  superfluous  sprouts  on  the 
trunk,  and  stray  branches  that  threaten  to  throw  the  tree  out 
of  balance,  should  be  removed  without  delay.  The  use  of  a 
sharp  knife  is  very  essential,  and  all  cuts  should  be  made  as 
smooth  as  possible.  All  cuts  made  with  a  saw,  especially  large 
limbs,  should  be  pared  down  smooth  with  a  sharp  knife,  then 
waxed  over  or  painted  with  gum  shellac  in  proper  solution  to 
spread  easily. 

The  advantage  low-trained  trees  have  over  the  high-trimmed 
is  easily  seen  in  the  accompanying  illustrations,  made  from 


118 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


photographs  taken  in  two  of  the  largest  orchards  in  the  State, 
at  San  Gabriel. 

The  cut  on  this  page  illustrates  the  method  of  high  pruning 
followed  by  some  growers  who  until  recently  were  firm  believers 
in  the  system.  The  trees  require  to  be  propped  to  support  the 
fruit  which  is  borne  at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  As  many  as 
ten  to  fifteen  poles  are  required  on  some  trees  to  prevent  the 
breaking  of  limbs  that  become  heavily  laden  with  fruit,  besides 

tying  them  with  ropes 
to  the  main  branches. 
The  ground  underneath 
always  "  bakes "  and 
the  trees  show  yellow- 
ing of  the  leaves.  Now, 
pause  for  a  moment, 
study  the  picture  and 
see  what  proportion  of 
foliage  is  cut  away, 
which,  if  left,  would 
protect  the  upper  limb? 
from  breaking  and  al- 
low the  fruit  to  be 
borne  proportionally 
throughout.  It  is  need- 
less, perhaps,  to  remark 
that  the  crop  borne  on 
such  trees  is  consider- 
ably less  than  that 
borne  by  trees  having 
a  dense  foliage  and 

High-pruned  trees— propped.  trained   low. 

The  illustration  on  page  120  is  of  a  low-trained  tree,  from 
a  photograph  taken  in  an  orchard,  and  a  fair  specimen  of  how 
the  entire  orchard  looks.  Here  no  props  are  used ;  there  is 
little  or  no  dead  wood  inside,  caused  by  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun. 
No  limbs  are  required  to  be  tied,  and  above  all  the  crop  is 
always  twice  the  size  of  that  borne  by  high-trimmed  orchards. 

In  summer  the  trees  must  be  irrigated,  and  as  the  cultivator 
cannot  run  close  to  the  trunks  the  surface  of  most  soils  will 
"bake"  by  the  heat  before  they  can  be  worked  by  hand.  On 


120 


STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 


low-trained  trees,  the  shade  of  the  branches  keeps  the  ground 
moist,  and  in  case  of  excessive  heat  or  scarcity  of  water,  the 
trees  will  not  suffer ;  whereas  the  heat  dries  out  the  soil  beneath 
high-trimmed  trees  and  causes  the  leaves  to  curl,  and  also 
checks  the  growth  of  the  fruit  unless  the  trees  are  again  watered. 
Low-trained  trees  become  well  balanced,  vigorous,  healthy,  and 
more  productive,  and  the  fruit  is  much  more  easily  and  cheaply 
gathered. 


A  low-trained  tree— The  favorite  method. 


Propping. — Proper  propping  of  orange  trees  becomes  one 
of  the  essential  features  in  orchard  work.  The  old  method  of 
propping  with  willow  poles  has  been  improved  upon  by  the 
construction  of  a  prop  which  is  both  durable  and  adjustable,  of 
which  there  are  several  patents.  The  prop  is  so  placed  that 
the  ends  rest  under  the  tree,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  the 
next  page,  from  a  photograph.  When  so  arranged  they  do  not 
interfere  with  the  cultivator,  as  they  naturally  would  if  placed 
surrounding  the  tree  on  the  outside. 


THE    ORANGE   IN    CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 


121 


THE  ORANGE  CROP-GATHERING,  ETC, 

Picking. — Generally  the  fruit  is  not  taken  from  the  trees  at 
one  picking;  the  ripe  fruit  is  first  picked,  thus  lightening  up 
the  trees.  The  clean,  bright-colored,  smooth,  fine-shaped,  firm 
oranges  always  command  the  best  prices.  Fruit  is  handled 
with  care.  Growers  find  it  an  advantage  to  stem-cut  (clip), 
rather  than  to  pull  the  orange,  as  in  pulling  there  is  danger  of 
tearing  the  skin.  The  fruit  should  not  be  packed  fresh  from 
the  tree,  as  when  packed  it  will  heat  and  sweat  in  the  box  at 
an  ordinary  temperature,  and,  as  the  entire  contents  of  the  box 
become  damp,  there 
is  great  danger  of  rot 
and  decay.  The  fruit 
should  be  picked  into 
boxes  and  left  in  the 
packing-house  three 
or  four  days,  to  allow 
the  rind  to  shrink 
and  lose  its  surplus 
moisture.  Unless  the 
weather  is  very  cool 
oranges  go  through 
a  natural  sweat,  in 
which  the  surplus 
moisture  escapes  and 


Orange  tree  properly  propped. 


the     rind     becomes 

tough    and    pliable; 

many  unseen  imperfections,  such  as  slight  bruises,  etc.,  will 

develop  into  spots,  necessitating  a  more  careful  selection  of  the 

perfect  fruit  for  market. 

Packing. — Packing  oranges  has  almost  been  reduced  to  a 
fine  art,  and  the  following  suggestions  offered  by  experienced 
growers  should  be  carefully  followed: 

Use  only  the  standard  box,  which  is  11-J  x  11^x26  inches, 
with  a  partition  in  the  middle.  It  is  of  great  importance  in 
securing  a  perfect  pack  that  the  partition  and  ends  of  the  box 
are,  in  their  making,  correctly  placed.  The  sizes  of  oranges 
vary  only  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  the  least  irreg- 


122  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

ularity  in  box-making  will  cause  the  oranges  of  one  side  to  be 
too  high  and  the  other  side  with  the  same  sized  fruit  to  be  too 
low.  In  topping  the  packed  box  of  oranges  for  shipment,  the  old 
method  of  hooping  the  ends  and  middle  of  the  box  to  secure 
the  box  during  shipment  has  been  discarded.  With  a  proper 
machine  the  fruit  is  pressed  at  the  extreme  ends  of  the  box 
only.  The  top  pieces  are  held  in  place,  and  narrow,  thin 
cleats  are  nailed  across  the  top  ends,  which  hold  the  top  firmly 
in  place.  The  center  of  the  top  is  left  free.  By  this  method  the 
fruit  is  hardly  pressed  in  the  box,  and  two  advantages  arise 
from  this  practice:  The  fruit  arrives  in  better  condition  as  to 
shape  and  soundness,  and  the  buyer  by  removing  the  cleats 
can  readily  inspect  the  fruit  and  not  injure  the  package. 

The  arrangement  which  brings  one  orange  directly  on  top  of 
another,  instead  of  breaking  joints,  has  been  discarded  by  the 
best  packers.  Alternated  so  that  each  orange  comes  over  the 
space  between  two,  the  whole  has  more  solidity  and  elasticity, 
and  the  fruit,  as  a  result,  sustains  less  injury  from  rough  hand- 
ling. It  is  best  to  pack  oranges  upon  the  dovetail  plan,  which 
allows  the  packing  of  more  oranges  in  the  box,  and  they  are  so 
braced  against  each  other  as  to  be  immovable. 

Regulate  the  size  so  as  to  have  the  oranges  packed  in  tight 
and  rise  a  full  three  quarters  of  an  inch  above  the  top  of  the 
box.  Packers  confine  themselves  to  the  96,  112,  126,  150,  176, 
200,  216,  and  250  sizes.  If  the  sizer  be  properly  adjusted,  this 
will  provide  for  all  sizes  and  simplify  matters  very  much. 

Do  not  dump  the  fruit  into  the  boxes  carelessly.  Pack  close 
and  firm,  so  that  the  fruit  will  not  have  room  to  tumble  about 
in  the  boxes  and  get  bruised. 

Oranges  classed  as  u  fancy "  should  be  extra  bright,  with 
very  smooth,  thin  skin.  Rough,  thick-skinned  fruit,  be  it  ever 
so  bright,  should  never  be  classed  as  fancy. 

Oranges  classed  as  "  choice  bright "  should  be  strictly  bright 
and  of  fairly  smooth  skin  and  desirable  size. 

Oranges  classed  as  "  bright "  should  be  bright  and  free  from 
smut. 

Never  pack  bright  and  smutty  oranges  in  the  same  box. 
Never  pack  large  and  small  oranges  in  the  same  box. 

One  of  the  most  important  features  in  the  packing  of  oranges 
is  the  uniform  neatness  of  the  packages.  Buyers  will  pay  more 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA  —  THE    CROP.  123 

for  fruit  that  is  neatly  and  properly  packed  than  they  will  for 
such  as  is  carelessly  put  up. 

All  growers  should  endeavor  to  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
shipment  of  green  and  imperfect  fruit.  A  few  years  ago  the 
"  windfalls  "  and  "  culls  "  brought  paying  prices,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  there  was,  comparatively  speaking,  only  a  limited 
quantity  of  this  class  of  fruit.  Remember,  however,  that  of 
late  years  the  crop  has  steadily  increased,  and  the  supply  of 
strictly  good  fruit  is  now  becoming  amply  sufficient  to  fill  ordi- 
nary demands;  hence,  the  shipment  of  "drops,"  "culls,"  green 
and  inferior  fruit  simply  aids  in  depressing  markets,  and  inter- 
feres seriously  with  the  sale  of  good  fruit.  The  shipment  of 
inferior  fruit  is  neither  profitable  to  the  grower  nor  creditable 
to  the  State. 

THE  STANDARD  ORANGE  BOX. 

Standard  Orange  Boxes,  11^"  x  U%"  x  26". 

Ends  ..............  .  .......  -  ............  3  pieces  H"xllM"xlW 

Sides-  .........  .  .............  __________  8  pieces  %"  x  5^"x26" 

Cleats  ...............................  —  2  pieces  %"x     &"xlli£" 

Standard  Orange  Boxes,  Il^"xll^"x26". 

Ends  .........  .  ...................  ______  3  pieces  ft"  x  11}$"  x  UK" 

Sides  and  bottoms  .......  ..........  —  .  9  pieces  %"  x  3K"x26" 

Tops..  ...........  .  ....................  2  pieces  >^"x  5>4"x26" 

Cleats  .....  .  .......  ..  ..............  _____  2  pieces  %"x     ^"xll^" 

Standard  Orange  Boxes,  UK"  x  UK"  x  26". 

Ends....  .............  .  ...  .............    8piecesH"xllK"xllK" 

Tops  and  bottoms,  and  sides  .........  12  pieces  ^"x  3K"x26" 

Cleats  .......  .  .........  _____  ......  _____   2  pieces  %"x     &"xll^" 

Half  Orange  Boxes,  5%"xllK"x26". 

Ends  ........  .-._  ..........  .  ............  3  pieces  i£"  *  5%"  x  1W 

Slats  .....  .  .......  __________  .......  ______  6  pieces  %"  x  5%"  x  26" 

Cleats  ...................................  2  pieces  %"  x  ft" 


Half  Orange  Boxes,  5%"  x  UK"  x  26". 

Ends  ....................................  3piecesH"x5%"xllK" 

Tops  and  bottoms  ...................  ,  6  pieces  %"x3K"x26" 

Sides  ....................................  2piecesK"x5^"x26" 

Cleats  ...................................  2  pieces  %"  x  ft"  x  11%" 

Half  Orange  Boxes,  UK"  x  UK"  x  13". 

Ends  .......  .  .......  ______  .............  .2  pieces  H"xllX"xllX" 

Slats  .....................  .  ......  ........  8  pieces  %"x  5%"xl3" 

Cleats..  ..2  pieces  %"x 


124  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

SIZES  OF  ORANGES. 

No.  in  Inches  in 

Box.  Diameter. 

112...  - - - 3f 

126 - - 3| 

150 - - -  3 

176 - 2£ 

200 - - - --  2f 

216 - 2| 

250 - - 2f 

300 - 2f 

PAPER  USED  IN  PACKING  DIFFERENT  SIZED  ORANGES. 

Size  of  Paper.  Number  of  Oranges  in  Box. 

8x8 288-324-360 

9x9 -        216-250 

10x10 - - - -        176-200 

11x11 112-126-150 

12x12 80-  96 

Weight  of  Oranges. — The  weight  of  a  box  of  oranges 
varies  in  each  season,  in  the  months  of  the  same  season,  in 
different  varieties,  and  in  the  different  sizes  of  each  variety. 
The  difference  in  weight  is  caused  by  many  circumstances.  In 
some  seasons  climatic  conditions  are  such  as  to  build  the  tissues 
solid  and  firm.  The  plant  seems  to  have  an  added  power  to 
construct  the  heavy  sugar  compounds  and  build  its  tissues 
compact  and  with  more  than  its  usual  weight.  In  arriving  at 
the  weight  of  oranges  all  of  these  conditions  have  to  be  con- 
sidered. An  average  season  is  when  there  is  a  continuous  and 
even  distribution  of  heat  units  during  the  summer  months, 
with  no  frost  to  break  the  inner  tissues  of  the  orange,  causing 
both  evaporation  of  its  juices  and  reabsorption,  preventing  the 
tree  giving  and  the  orange  appropriating  the  starch-building 
compounds  from  the  injured  and  unelaborated  sap.  There  are 
also  local  conditions — as  soil,  nearness  to  the  ocean,  altitude, 
and  the  general  slope  of  the  orange  area,  as  to  the  north,  east, 
south,  or  west — to  which  may  be  added  those  personal  condi- 
tions of  irrigation,  fertilization,  and  cultivation. 

Taking  the  season  of  1895  as  an  average  season,  and  the 
orange  growths  of  March,  April,  May,  and  June,  produced  on 
the  terrace  lands  of  Colton,  the  average  net  weights  of  packed 
oranges  in  the  standard  orange  box  were  as  follows: 

Pounds. 

Washington  Navel _ 65.144 

Australian  Navel 64.282 

Florida  Navel  ..  ..   67.972 


THE   ORANGE   IN   CALIFORNIA — THE    CROP.  125 

Pounds. 

Seedling 64.095 

Homosassa _ _ 65.182 

Mediterranean  Sweet _ 66.510 

St.  Michael _ 69.172 

Bloods 66.352 

Valencia  Late...  ..  68.632 


Net  average  weight  per  box,  all  varieties  and  sizes,  during 
the  above  months _ _ 66.37 

The  three  principal  varieties  grown  in  California,  or  that 
will  be  grown,  are  the  Washington  Navel,  Seedling  (either 
natural  or  budded),  and  Mediterranean  Sweet.  The  weights  of 
these  varieties  are: 

Pounds. 

Washington  Navel _ 65.144 

Seedling _.  64.095 

Mediterranean  Sweet...  ..  66.510 


Net  average  weight  of  these  varieties 65.247 

The  sizes  of  oranges  vary  from  80  to  360  to  the  box.  The 
size  variation  in  weight  per  box  of  the  three  varieties  of  fruit  is: 

Pounds. 

Washington  Navel 6.56 

Seedling ._ 7.51 

Mediterranean  Sweet 5.03 

The  average  difference  in  weight  of  the  three  varieties  of  the 
light  or  heavy  sizes  is  6.36  pounds. 

Taking  the  same  size  for  the  determination  of  monthly 
variation  in  weight,  and  comparing  the  lightest  and  heaviest 
month's  fruit  of  the  three  varieties  named,  the  following 
variations  in  monthly  weights  appear  for  the  176  size: 

Washington  Navel—  Pounds. 

February _ ._ 66.34 

March 67.12 

Variation.. 77 

Seedling — 

February —  61.24 

May 67.51 

Variation - 6.27 

Mediterranean  Sweet — 

May 65.96 

June - 67.10 

Variation _ 1.14 

These  deductions  are  of  value  in  determining  the  proper 
sizes  of  each  variety  to  grow  and  the  profitable  season  to 
market  each  variety. 


126  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

The  monthly  variation  of  the  Washington  Navel  shows  that 
it  matures  early,  and  that  it  is  practically  uniform  in  weight. 
With  the  Seedling  it  is  .different;  the  increase  in  weight  from 
February  to  May  is  over  ten  per  cent — surely  agood  argument 
against  sending  to  market  the  immature  fruit  of  the  former 
date. 

Standard  Car  of  Oranges. — The  regulations  governing  the 
variety  of  size  in  the  "  standard  car  of  oranges  "  were  adopted 
by  the  Fruit  Growers  and  Shippers'  Association  of  Southern 
California,  as  follows: 

Navel  Oranges. — A  standard  car  of  Navel  oranges  to  consist 
of  sizes  96's  to  200's  inclusive;  not  over  15  per  cent  96's  and 
112's.  Any  excess  of  15  per  cent  96's  and  112's  to  be  considered 
off-sizes  and  invoiced  at  a  reduction  of  50  cents  per  box.  Sizes 
64's,  80's,  and  250's,  Navel,  to  be  considered  off-sizes  and  in- 
voiced at  a  reduction  of  50  cents  per  box  from  the  price  for 
regular  sizes.  Sizes  216's,  in  Navels,  to  be  considered  off-sizes 
and  invoiced  at  a  reduction  of  25  cents  per  box. 

Seedlings,  Mediterranean  Sweets,  etc. — The  standard  car  of 
other  varieties  (except  Valencias  and  Paper-rind  St.  Michaels) 
to  consist  of  sizes  126's  to  250's  inclusive;  not  to  exceed  15  per 
cent  126's  and  not  over  15  per  cent  250's.  Any  excess  of  15 
per  cent  126's  and  15  per  cent  250's  to  be  considered  off-sizes 
and  invoiced  at  a  reduction  of  25  cents  per  box.  Sizes  of  seed- 
ling oranges  larger  and  smaller  than  126's  to  250's,  inclusive, 
to  be  considered  off-sizes  and  invoiced  at  a  reduction  of  25  cents 
per  box. 

It  is  understood  that  each  car  of  oranges  may  contain  a 
reasonable  quantity  of  off-sizes,  at  the  reductions  named  above. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — DISEASES,    ETC.  127 

OKANGE  DKOPPING,  DISEASES,  ETC.  , 

Generally  during  the  month  of  June,  and  as  early  as  May 
in  some  years,  growers  experience  a  continuous  dropping  of 
young  fruit,  due  to  various  unknown  causes. 

*  "  As  a  rule,  growers  ascribe  it  entirely  to  hot  winds,  and  it. 
is  doubtless  true  that  the  extremely  hot  weather  finds  trees 
partially  dormant  and  the  damage  is  wrought  on  the  young, 
tender  oranges  and  lemons  before  the  sap  could  start  to  flow- 
ing freely.  But  on  the  other  hand,  we  can  see  orchards  that 
still  have  a  fair  crop  of  fruit.  Why  is  it?  is  easily  asked,  but 
not  so  easily  answered.  The  most  universal  remedy  that  is 
recommended  is  water,  and  in  so  far  as  it  is  used  to  put  the  tree 
in  good  condition,  is  doubtless  effective.  To  do  that  water 
should  be  applied  two  or  three  weeks  prior  to  the  hot  or  cold 
weather,  or  in  other  words,  the  tree  should  at  all  times  be  in 
strong  growing  condition.  To  accomplish  this,  water  in  abun- 
dance down  deep  in  the  ground  is  necessary.  Surface  irriga- 
tion is  of  little  avail.  It  will  be  noticed  that  those  irrigators 
who  are  applying  water  in  the  furrow  until  it  reaches  the  lower 
end,  are  the  ones  who  scarcely  ever  have  a  crop,  whether  we  have 
hot  or  cold  weather,  or  the  best  of  conditions.  And  right  here 
I  might  say  that  the  ideal  season  never  comes,  for  there  is 
always  something  with  which  to  contend.  I  plan  to  irrigate 
my  trees  every  six  weeks,  running  the  water  eight  or  ten  hours 
in  each  furrow.  On  heavy  soil  this  would  not  be  sufficient, 
but  on  my  sandy  loam  it  is.  Following  the  irrigation  I  culti- 
vate deeply  and  thoroughly.  I  deem  the  deep  cultivation 
essential  so  that  the  surface  roots  may  be  destroyed.  This  is 
still  better  accomplished  in  the  wet  season  by  deep  plowing. 
I  am  thoroughly  convinced  that  deep  plowing  is  beneficial  in 
all  seasons,  and  especially  so  in  dry  ones.  The  roots  are 
forced  to  go  lower  to  where  the  supply  of  moisture  is  more 
permanent,  consequently  such  trees  are  not  so  quickly  affected 
by  any  hot  wave  or  sudden  change.  Therefore,  I  would  say 
that  the  first  requisite  of  always  securing  good  crops  of  oranges 
is  deeply  rooted  trees  irrigated  so  thoroughly  that  at  all 
times  there  is  in  store  a  plentiful  supply  of  moisture.  Should 
I  stop  here  and  say  that  this  is  the  one  thing  needful,  I 

*  C.  B.  Messenger,  before  Farmers'  Institute  at  Pomona,  October,  1896. 


128  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

presume  there  are  some  who  might  declare  it  a  fallacy,  and 
quote  their  own  experience  in  proof.  In  fact,  in  my  inquiries 
I  consulted  one  orchardist  who  had  irrigated  thoroughly  three 
different  plots,  respectively  four  weeks,  two  weeks,  and  one  or 
two  days  before  the  first  hot  wave  this  spring,  and  yet  a  large 
percentage  of  his  crop  went  to  the  ground. " 

Wm.  C.  Fuller,  of  Colton,  says:  "I  find  the  best  crops  near 
the  heads  of  irrigating  streams,  and  use  the  method  described 
as  so  fatal  by  Mr.  Messenger.  To  be  sure  I  do  not  get  as  large 
a  crop  as  some  who  use  this  same  method.  I  had  twelve  car- 
loads from  about  fifteen  acres." 

Yellow  and  Variegated  Leaves  on  Orange  and  Lemon 
Trees. — It  is  doubtful  if  there  is  a  section  in  the  State  where 
orange  and  lemon  trees  cannot  be  seen  with  yellow  and 
variegated  leaves.  This  has  been  ascribed  to  various  reasons, 
such  as  too  much  or  not  enough  water,  too  much  or  lack  of 
cultivation,  excessive  cold,  excessive  heat,  etc. 

Prof.  S.  M.  Woodbridge,  of  Los  Angeles,  says:  "  Without 
wishing  to  offend  any  one  for  ill  treating  so  good  and  paying 
a  friend  as  the  orange  and  lemon  tree,  we  would  suggest  the 
answer  in  one  word  :  Starvation.  The  remedy  then  would 
naturally  lie  in  feeding.  In  reviewing  the  analyses  of  the  soils 
in  Southern  California,  one  is  naturally  struck  with  the  defi- 
ciency in  sulphuric  acid  that  such  soils  show.  Having  been 
brought  up  in  a  section  of  country  where  it  was  definitely 
settled  that  the  'only  expensive  ingredients  that  any  soil 
was  likely  to  be  deficient  in  were  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  potash,'  and  considering  that  there  the  form  of  phos- 
phate was  invariably  a  superphosphate,  i.  e.,  made  soluble 
by  sulphuric  acid,  and  further  finding  that  untreated  bone  is 
the  usual  form  in  which  it  is  used  there,  and  also  being  con- 
vinced that  the  soil  analysis  theory  had  been  exploded  years 
since  and  discarded  by  people  the  world  over  who  are  looked 
upon  and  considered  'authorities,'  and  having  shown,  by 
actual  field  tests,  that  potash  was  beneficial  even  on  soils  that 
had  been  reported  as  very  rich  in  potash,  and  when  the  theo- 
retical advice  had  been  given  that  no  potash  would  be  required 
for  many  years ;  and  also  having  followed  out  the  experiments 
of  A.  B.  Griffiths,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  of  England,  with  the  use  of 
sulphate  of  iron,  and  also  similar  experiments  conducted  in 


ETC.  129 

France,  and  not  having  obtained  as  satisfactory  results  from  a 
certain  test  plot  on  wornout  soil  as  could  have  been  desired, 
the  writer  used  sulphate  of  iron  in  conjunction  with  the  test 
plot.  The  result  was  so  satisfactory  that  when  one  of  the  large 
growers  of  lemons  and  orange's  last  September  asked  what 
remedy  could  be  applied  to  prevent  his  trees  from  turning 
yellow  and  much  of  the  fruit  from  ripening  prematurely  when 
not  half  grown,  I  suggested  a  liberal  dose  of  complete  fertilizer — 
that  is,  one  containing  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash — 
together  with  about  seventy-five  pounds  of  sulphate  of  iron 
per  acre.  The  orchard  had  previously  been  liberally  treated 
with  stable  manure,  yet  some  of  the  trees  were  not  in  a  healthy 
condition.  Now  the  trees  have  a  healthy  green  appearance, 
and  nearly  if  not  quite  all  of  the  new  growth  is  of  a  bright  or 
deep  green  color,  whereas  the  trees  that  were  not  treated  have 
the  new  growth  showing  a  variegated,  streaked  leaf.  Since  the 
first  experiment  was  tried  several  other  plots  have  been  treated 
in  the  same  way,  with  the  most  gratifying  results.  As  to  the 
why  and  wherefore  of  the  encouraging  results  obtained  from 
the  use  of  sulphate  of  iron,  we  confine  ourselves  to  quoting 
what  Dr.  Griffiths  says  upon  the  subject: 

"'  Three  years'  experiments  show  that  a  small  dressing  of  a 
hundredweight  of  iron. sulphate  per  acre  is  a  most  beneficial 
manure. 

"'The  author's  proposition  (Chemical  News,  Vol.  XL VII,  p. 
27)  was  that  a  "fairly  large  proportion  of  soluble  iron  in  a  soil  is 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  plants  developing  a  large  amount  of 
chlorophyll."  And  all  subsequent  investigations  on  the  growth 
of  crops  with  iron  sulphate  have  entirely  confirmed  the 
accuracy  of  that  proposition. 

"  'All  soils  contain  iron  as  a  constituent,  but  the  iron  is  not 
always  in  a  form  to  be  readily  taken  up  by  growing  crops. 
This  being  so  a  crop  must  suffer,  iron  being  one  of  the  ingre- 
dients requisite  for  the  formation  of  green  chlorophyll. 

"  *  Chlorophyll  is  a  substance  of  primary  importance  in  every 
plant  (giving  rise  in  the  first  instance  to  starch,  woody  fibers, 
fats,  and  carbohydrates  generally ) ;  therefore  it  is  necessary  to 
add  soluble  iron  compounds,  where  the  soil  is  deficient  in  these 
ingredients,  or  where  the  iron  is  not  in  a  form  for  root-absorp- 
tion. Some  soils  are  certainly  deficient  in  soluble  iron,  and  no 
9c 


130  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

amount  of  nitrates,  ammonia  salts,  etc.,  will  replace  this 
ingredient.  The  farmer  must  add  soluble  iron  salts  to  his 
land  if  he  desires  to  obtain  a  full  yield  with  the  least  expense. 
Dr.  E.  Wolff,  the  German  authority,  found  that  when  soluble 
iron  was  omitted  in  certain  culture  experiments,  the  young 
plants  became  yellow  and  sickly,  but  they  quickly  became 
green  and  assumed  a  luxuriant  growth  when  a  small  quantity 
of  iron  solution  was  added.'  (Griffith  on  Manures,  p.  268,  etc.)" 

Gum  Disease. — There  are  various  'forms  of  so-called  "  gum 
diseases."  One  attacks  both  young  and  old  trees  at  the  crown 
and  roots  of  the  tree,  while  another  appears  on  the  large  limbs 
in  the  form  of  a  "  scab,"  and  another  'on  the  trunks  and  main 
branches. 

The  most  deadly  of  these  is  the  "  root  form,"  which  is  preva- 
lent almost  everywhere.  This  form  of  the  disease  is  first 
detected  on  the  trunks  of  trees  close  to  the  ground,  and  is  an 
exudation  of  the  sap,  which  breaks  through  the  bark  and  con- 
geals in  the  form  of  a  gum.  No  citrus  tree  is  free  from  the 
disease,  and  one  of  the  newest  facts  regarding  its  appearance 
is  that  frequently  the  finest  trees  are  attacked.  It  often  hap- 
pens that  in  making  a  search  for  the  early  development  of  the 
disease,  no  trace  of  it  is  observed  until  exudation  has  freely 
commenced.  It  often  happens,  too,  that  in  digging  away  the 
surface  soil  around  the  stem,  little  more  than  a  black  scratch 
about  one  to  two  inches  long  has  been  discovered,  which  when 
cut  open  shows  the  gummy  fluid  more  or  less  encircling  the 
wood  under  the  bark. 

Remedy  for  the  Gum  Disease.— The  best  method  of  con- 
trolling this  disease  is  to  cut  away  the  bark  surrounding  the 
place  from  whence  the  gum  is  oozing,  in  order  to  detect  the 
main  parts  affected.  The  wood  where  the  gum  is  oozing  is  cut 
out  with  a  chisel  and  left  for  a  day  or  so,  to  determine  if  all 
the  disease  has  been  removed.  If  it  is  not  altogether  removed, 
the  affected  parts  soon  commence  to  ooze  out  gum,  when  more 
of  the  wood  is  cut  until  it  ceases.  Yellow  streaks  of  sour  sap 
are  generally  seen  in  the  grain  of  the  wood,  which  are  traces  of 
the  disease.  If  the  affected  parts  show  no  further  exudation  it 
is  proof  that  the  disease  has  been  removed,  and  the  affected 
parts  so  treated  are  either  waxed  over  or  covered  with  a  good 


132  STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

coat  of  rubber  paint.  Where  the  disease  has  reached  around 
the  tree  there  is  no  possible  cure  for  it,  and  in  such  cases  it  is 
better  to  remove  the  tree  and  put  a  healthy  one  in  its  place. 
The  spot  where  the  tree  stood  is  disinfected  by  a  slacking  of 
fresh  lime,  and  leaving  the  ground  exposed  for  a  reasonable 
time. 

This  disease  being  of  a  bacterial  form,  all  chips  and  scrapings 
should  be  carefully  collected  and  burned,  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  the  disease  through  the  orchard.  The  tools  should  also  be 
dipped  in  some  disinfectant  before  being  used  on  other  trees. 

Some  growers  are  led  to  believe  that  badly  diseased  trees 
can  be  restored  to  perfect  health  by  cutting  back  the  tops  and 
removing  all  large  limbs  to  force  a  new  growth.  In  all  badly 
infected  trees  there  are  always  a  few  healthy  roots  that  furnish 
enough  vitality  to  the  tree  to  keep  it  alive.  The  cutting  away 
of  all  the  foliage  forces  new  growth,  and  while  the  trees  some- 
times produce  large,  coarse,  puffy,  and  sour  oranges  for  a  few 
years,  they  finally  succumb  to  the  effects  of  the  disease,  and 
it  is  only  a  waste  of  time  and  energy  to  try  to  restore  them. 

*"  Crude  commercial  carbolic  acid  was  found  to  be  the  best 
remedy,  and  was  used  in  varying  strengths.  When  mixed 
with  its  own  weight  of  water  it  was  found  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose admirably,  the  gum  having  been  previously  cut  away,  so 
that  the  application  could  be  made  directly  on  the  parts  most 
affected.  The  result  in  almost  every  case  was  that  new  bark 
began  to  grow  over  the  diseased  parts,  at  the  lines  where  the 
old  bark  was  healthy.  In  cases  where  the  roots  had  become 
affected,  the  ground  was  carefully  pulled  away  from  the  roots 
of  the  tree  to  the  depth  of  from  six  to  ten  inches,  and,  after  a 
day  or  two  exposure,  the  diluted  carbolic  acid  was  applied,  and 
in  the  course  of  three  or  four  weeks  a  second  application  was 
made,  when  the  soil  was  put  back  to  its  original  position,  and 
subsequent  applications  of  diluted  carbolic  acid  were  made, 
from  time  to  time,  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Coal  tar 
has  been  found  to  be  very  efficacious  also.  It  is  applied  by 
taking  the  soil  away  from  the  roots  of  the  tree  and  putting 
from  one  half  pint  to  a  quart  (according  to  the  size  of  the  tree) 
in  the  soil  about  the  roots  of  the  tree,  and  covering  the  tar 

*Prof.  S.  M.  Woodbridge,  in  essay  before  Farmers'  Institute,  Santa  Bar- 
bara, 1894. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION.  133 

with  the  soil  so  removed.  Among  those  so  treated  are  some 
trees  in  the  famous  orange  avenue  of  Sunny  Slope.  Too  much 
care  cannot  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  carbolic  acid.  The 
strength  of  the  commercial  acid  varies,  and  it  must  be  diluted 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  vegetable  tissues  will  not  be  destroyed 
by  it." 


FEKTILIZATION, 

* "  The  question  of  fertilizers  for  the  orange  orchard  has  in 
some  form  been  almost  continuously  before  the  club.  What 
kind  of  fertilizers  are  the  best,  and  how  and  when  they  should 
be  put  on  ?  are  questions  often  asked,  but  never  as  yet  answered 
to  the  satisfaction  of  all.  Careful  experiments  are  being  made 
by  members  of  the  club,  but  as  yet  we  have  nothing  definite 
to  report.  However,  it  is  known  that  the  different  commercial 
fertilizers  on  the  market  are  good,  and  that  freely  applied  they 
generally  give  satisfactory  results.  But  the  growers  believe 
that  they  are  too  expensive,  and  that  by  buying  the  chemicals 
and  doing  their  own  mixing,  or  by  applying  the  chemicals  in 
suitable  quantity  to  the  soil  without  mixing,  they  may  reduce 
the  expense  almost  one  half.  This  method  is  likely  to  be 
adopted  by  many  growers,  and  that  will  tend  to  lower  the 
price  of  the  fertilizers  now  on  the  market. 

"  There  is  a  growing  conviction  among  our  orchardists  that 
stable  manure  is  one  of  our  most  valuable  fertilizers,  when  it 
can  be  secured  at  reasonable  figures.  A  member  of  our  club 
has  a  small  Navel  orchard,  fifteen  years  old,  a  part  of  which 
has  been  fertilized  exclusively  with  stable  manure.  It  has 
borne  regularly,  and  the  fruit  has  been  fully  up  to  the  average 
standard  in  quality.  But  it  is  probably  better  as  a  rule  to 
vary  the  kind  of  fertilizer  applied." 

*From  report  of  J.  M.  Edmison  to  Riverside  Horticultural  Club,  Feb- 
ruary, 1899. 


134  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

THE   USE  OF   FERTILIZERS.* 

In  the  use  of  any  kind  of  fertilizer  there  are  so  many 
unknown  conditions  prevailing,  so  great  difference  in  soils  and 
in  there  general  treatment,  and  the  ignorance  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  fertilizer,  that  with  me  it  is  difficult  to  attend  to  this 
important  work  with  any  scientific  exactitude.  I  presume  those 
who  will  make  the  question  a  study  may  eventually  gain  such 
knowledge  as  will  enable  them  to  discern  the  wants  of  their 
soil,  and  become  sufficiently  posted  in  agricultural  chemistry 
that  they  will  know  how  to  provide  these  requirements  at  the 
least  expense  and  with  the  greatest  degree  of  accuracy.  But 
what  is  the  ordinary  rancher  going  to  do  about  it? 

Uncertain  Results. — The  growers  of  my  section  have  experi- 
mented with  almost  every  kind  of  fertilizer,  but  the  results,  in 
the  way  of  better  crops,  have  not  been  so  marked  and  so  plainly 
attributed  to  the  applied  articles,  that  many  of  us  dare  speak 
with  any  degree  of  certainty.  We  wish  we  could.  One  grower, 
and  the  only  one  I  have  talked  with  who  has  continued  to  use 
the  same  compounded  article  for  so  long  as  four  years,  has 
gathered  each  year  a  profitable  crop.  A  neighbor  adjoining, 
who  has  used  nothing,  has  also  harvested  good  crops.  Another, 
who  has  used  different  kinds  of  fertilizers,  and  with  no  attempt 
-at  regularity,  has  usually  gathered  abundance.  This,  of  course, 
is  not  conclusive  evidence  that  fertilizers  are  not  helpful,  but 
when  similar  experiences  are  general  it  leaves  one  in  great 
doubt  as  to  what  should  be  done.  We  have  no  money  to  spend 
upon  that  which  does  not  at  least  bring  an  equivalent  in  larger 
or  better  crops,  yet  we  are  quite  anxious  to  do  that  which  will 
enhance  the  quality  of  the  fruit  and  maintain  the  groves  in 
vigor  for  the  longest  possible  time. 

The  soil  in  the  Fullerton  and  Placentia  districts  in  general 
abounds  in  the  essential  elements — potash,  nitrogen,  and  phos- 
phoric acid — and  is  capable  of  sustaining  an  enormous  draft 
upon  it  for  a  considerable  time,  if  properly  manipulated.  Win- 
ter plowing,  a  couple  of  good  irrigations,  and  proper  cultivation, 
I  believe,  have  never  failed  to  produce  a  good  crop,  providing 
always  that  the  trees  are  free  from  scale  and  intelligently 
pruned.  We  do  not  consider  it  prudent,  however,  to  make  too 

*By  C.  C.  Chapman,  Pomological  Meeting,  Covina,  1898. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION.  135 

great  demands  upon  the  soil  without  giving  back  some  equiva- 
lent in  the  way  of  plant-food.  I  think  many  of  our  people 
have  tried  to  discover  just  what  is  most  needed  in  the  way  of 
substantial  diet,  but  as  previously  stated,  only  a  few  have  found 
that  which  is  satisfactory.  As  our  groves  advance  in  age,  how- 
ever, more  marked  results  may  be  noticed  in  the  application  of 
fertilizers. 

Pretty  much  every  brand  of  commercial  fertilizer  finds  users 
among  our  growers,  but  so  far  as  my  information  goes,  with 
one  exception,  of  those  who  are  not  interested  in  some  way  in 
the  sale  of  these  goods,  the  users  have  no  very  decided  views 
as  to  results.  They  are  unable  to  say  positively  that  one  kind 
has  given  better  results  than  another,  and  in  many  cases  are 
not  convinced  that  any  favorable  returns  were  obtained  from 
their  use. 

There  may  be  reasons  for  these  discouraging  experiences 
which  can  be  explained  by  those  informed.  If  we  only  knew 
just  what  to  employ  with  that  degree  of  certainty  that  we  use 
hydrocyanic  acid  gas  to  kill  scale,  we  should  feel  that  the  pro- 
duction of  citrus  fruits  could  be  regulated  with  almost  scientific 
accuracy. 

Great  Anticipations. — I  recognize  one  difficulty  in  the  employ- 
ment of  commercial  fertilizers  that  not  infrequently  prevails, 
and  that  is,  the  too  great  expectation  of  immediate  good  results 
to  be  derived  from  their  use.  The  fertilizer  is  scattered  about 
and  then  a  magical  change  is  looked  for,  and  a  consequent 
inactivity  in  cultivation  results,  and  in  the  end  perhaps  dis- 
appointment. We  should  follow  the  example  of  the  good 
Baptist  deacon  who  prayed  most  fervently  for  a  good  crop,  and 
then  turned  all  hands  out  early  to  help  the  Lord  answer  his 
prayer.  We  should  not  depend  upon  the  fertilizer,  however 
high  priced,  to  take  the  place  of  the  whole  process  of  crop 
reduction. 

An  Experiment. — I  have  been  frequently  questioned  as  to 
what  fertilizer  we  use  on  the  San  Isabel  ranch;  the  parties 
inquiring  wishing  to  know  that  they  might  employ  that  which 
had  produced  such  excellent  results.  I  regret  very  much  that 
I  have  been  unable  to  reply  to  these  inquiries  in  a  manner 
that  makes  the  answer  of  any  practical  value.  Two  years  ago 
I  made  what  I  intended  to  be  a  fairly  practical  test  of  different 


136  STATE    BOARD   OF    HORTICULTURE. 

fertilizers.  I  cannot  say  that  the  experiment  was  satisfactory 
in  giving  the  information  that  would  guide  me  in  the 
future  as  to  what  to  do  to  insure  a  good  crop.  Upon  a  plot  of 
one  thousand  trees  I  put  a  light  dressing  of  sheep  manure. 
Upon  the  next  one  thousand  I  used  commercial  fertilizer.  The 
adjoining  one  hundred  I  passed  without  giving  anything. 
Upon  the  next  plot  I  used  lime  cake.  Next  to  this  I  used 
bone  meal.  Then,  upon  another  plot,  I  used  the  sheep  manure, 
commercial  fertilizer,  bone  meal  and  lime  cake,  and  some  wood 
ashes — a  little  of  each.  The  crop  came,  and  it  was  in  great 
abundance  in  all  parts  of  the  orchard.  I  am  frank  to  say 
that  I  could  not  distinguish  any  material  difference  in  the 
size,  quality,  or  texture  of  the  fruit  grown  upon  the  various 
plots.  This  was  not  a  little  disappointing,  for  I  had  looked 
forward  to  this  plan  of  testing  soil  requirements  and  the  rela- 
tive value  of  various  fertilizers  to  decide  this  most  perplexing 
question.  I  supposed  I  would  be  able  to  tell  thereafter  just 
what  the  soil  demanded  in  order  to  produce  desired  results. 
But  I  was  still  left  in  the  dark.  I  will  add  that  while  I  may 
have  been  unable  to  distinguish  any  material  difference  in 
results  after  employment  of  fertilizers,  I  have  noticed  unmis- 
takable evidences  of  the  value  of  proper  irrigation  and 
cultivation. 

The  year  following,  last  year,  being  able  to  secure  sheep  manure 
at  what  I  considered  a  reasonable  price,  I  used  it  in  giving  the 
orchard  a  light  dressing,  with  the  exception  of  two  plots.  The 
harvest  was  the  heaviest  ever  secured,  and  the  fruits  of  the 
highest  grade,  and  I  still  •  could  distinguish  no  material 
difference  in  the  yield  in  any  part  of  the  orchard. 

I  am  quite  aware  that  there  was  a  combination  of  favorable 
influences  generally  prevailing  last  year,  which  gave  the  great- 
est abundance  of  fruit  to  non-users  of  fertilizers  as  well  as  to 
their  most  enthusiastic  advocates,  or  to  those  who  used  a  com- 
mon article,  as  to  those  who  applied  the  most  expensive  com- 
mercial production.  So  I  am  still  in  doubt. 

The  portion  of  the  orchard  which  is  the  heaviest  set  this 
year  is  the  plot  that  had  the  entire  combination  of  fertilizers 
two  years  ago.  Other  favorable  conditions,  I  think,  are  at 
least  in  a  measure  responsible  for  this. 

Aeration  of  the  Soil. — I  am  convinced  that  we  have  much 
plant-food  in  some  of  our  soils  that  is  not  utilized  on  account 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION.  137 

of  our  failure  to  sufficiently  aerate  the  soil  by  proper  and 
frequent  cultivation.  The  air,  I  believe,  is  an  essential  factor 
in  carrying  on  the  process  of  nitrification.  A  circulation  of  air 
through  the  soil  will  unquestionably  increase  the  available 
supply  of  nitrogenous  food. 

I  know  little  of  chemistry,  but  I  observe  that  soils  kept  open 
and  thoroughly  aerated  produce  great  growth,  even  without 
the  application  of  fertilizers  of  any  kind;  whereas,  soils  com- 
pacted, however  rich  in  plant-food,  will  not  compare  in  results. 
I  thus  philosophize  because  I  believe  much  plant-food  will 
never  be  utilized  until  the  soil  is  properly  aerated.  Cultivation 
is  therefore  an  important  factor  in  proper  fertilization  of  soil. 

How  to  Apply. — Fertilizers  are  variously  applied  by  orchard- 
ists.  One  grower,  and  he  has  a  fine,  well-kept  orchard  I  notice, 
scatters  barnyard  or  sheep  manure  immediately  around  the 
trunks  of  the  trees,  and  extending  out  five  or  six  feet.  Generally, 
however,  fertilizers  are  scattered  broadcast  between  trees  and 
plowed  under;  some,  however,  drill  them  in.  The  latter,  for 
commercial  goods  or  ground  sheep  manure,  is  the  best  method 
in  my  opinion.  I  observe  that  the  grove  first  referred  to  is 
vigorous  in  growing,  but  this  year  has  a  light  crop. 

However,  the  advocates  of  these  different  methods  generally 
point  to  good  crops  as  the  result  of  their  plans.  One  thing  is 
certain,  it  either  makes  little  or  no  difference  with  us  what  is 
used,  or  how  applied,  or  else  the  fertilizers  are  so  all-powerful 
that  it  is  only  necessary  to  have  them  come  in  contact  with 
the  soil  to  have  it  respond. 

Some  of  our  people  have  experimented  with  green  crops  for 
fertilizing,  but  have  nothing  satisfactory  to  report.  Perhaps  if 
they  had  used  some  of  the  leguminous  plants  recently  secured 
from  Europe,  and  so  highly  recommended  by  Professor  Hilgard 
and  others,  results  might  have  been  quite  different. 

More  Investigation  Desirable. — I  want  to  commend  this 
subject  to  the  careful  investigation  of  the  more  observing  and 
scientific  of  our  growers,  so  that  the  work  of  fertilizing  our 
citrus  orchards  may  be  reduced  to  a  science  so  plain,  simple, 
and  practical  that  any  of  us  may  comprehend  it,  and  that  the 
results  will  be  such  that  an  all-assuring  faith  in  its  principles 
may  prevail.  I  am  pleased  to  note  that  the  Agricultural 
Department  of  our  State  University,  as  well  as  those  interested 


138  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

in  the  manufacture  of  fertilizers,  have  made  and  are  making 
a  careful  study  of  the  subject,  and  have  done  much  in  dissemi- 
nating general  knowledge  of  the  question  and  in  educating 
the  public.  Those  who  give  the  matter  candid  and  honest 
thought  should  be  commended,  and  while  they  may  be  pri- 
marily promoted  by  selfish  motives  in  the  way  of  financial 
gain,  yet  if  they  devote  any  special  ability  they  may  possess 
to  a  more  perfect  comprehension  of  the  question  they  should 
be  regarded  as  public  benefactors. 

FERTILIZING   CITRUS  TREES.* 

Some  four  or  five  years  ago  I  commenced  hauling  stable 
manure  on  the  orchard,  and  on  the  information  of  good 
authority,  that  the  trees  would  not  need  fertilizing  probably 
for  some  years,  and  that  when  they  did  it  would  be  nitrogen,  I 
bought  and  applied  in  the  fall  Chile  saltpeter,  a  small  amount 
per  tree,  with  the  evident  result  that  I  had  more  puffy  fruit 
than  I  ever  had  before  up  to  that  date.  I  say  evident  result, 
as  the  orange-growers  who  used  it  in  Los  Angeles  County  had 
the  same  experience. 

Four  years  ago  I  commenced  to  apply  Woodbridge's  Orange 
Fertilizer.  Following  this  use  my  oranges  improved  in  color— 
at  least  had  a  higher  color — the  increased  yield  making  the 
oranges  smaller  and  more  desirable.  Last  December  I  sowed 
twelve  pounds  of  Woodbridge's  Orange  Fertilizer  No.  1  per 
tree,  and  cultivated  it  in.  Then  in  January  and  Febru- 
ary last  1  put  in  addition  upon  one  section  of  the  orchard 
fifteen  pounds  per  tree  of  the  West  Coast  Fertilizer;  and  on 
another  portion  of  the  orchard  fifteen  pounds  of  Bradley's 
Nursery  Stock  Fertilizer;  and  on  another  portion  of  the 
orchard  fifteen  pounds  of  pure  guano,  to  test  their  relative 
values.  From  the  portion  of  the  orchard  where  I  used  West 
Coast  Fertilizer  the  fruit  was  the  tenderest  I  ever  had;  per- 
haps the  word  softest  would  explain  the  character — and  it 
needed  shipment  first.  My  opinion  was  that  it  should  go 
under  ice;  but  Chicago  said  not  to  ice.  When  the  fruit 
arrived  in  the  East,  then  the  advice  came  to  ice  the  cars. 
After  shipping  this  fruit  I  commenced  on  the  section  where  I 
had  used  the  Bradley  Nursery  Stock  Fertilizer,  and  this  fruit, 

*  Extracts  from  essay  by  N.  W.  Blanchard,  President  of  the  Lemonia 
Company  of  Santa  Paula,  before  Farmers'  Institute,  1897. 


THE   ORANGE   IN    CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION.  139 

while  not  soft  like  the  first,  did  not  stand  up  well,  and  a  large 
amount  of  it  became  puffy  and  could  only  be  classed  as  culls. 
The  last  shipments  of  oranges  came  from  the  portion  of  the 
orchard  where  guano  was  used.  The  fruit  was  not  puffy, 
although  it  was  late  in  June.  The  oranges,  however,  had  com- 
menced to  drop  a  good  deal  and  did  not  keep  much  better  than 
the  rest.  It  should  be  added  here  that  the  promise  for  the  next 
year's  crop  of  oranges  is  best  where  I  used  the  Bradley  fertil- 
izer; then  next  the  West  Coast,  and  last  where  the  pure  guano 
was  used.  It  should  be  said  that  there  was  a  general  com- 
plaint last  year  that  all  the  oranges  did  not  keep  well.  I  was 
told  in  both  San  Francisco  and  Sacramento  that  never  before 
did  oranges  keep  so  poorly.  Now,  the  interesting  question 
is,  Why  did  the  oranges  not  keep  as  well  as  formerly,  and 
what  was  the  cause  of  the  difference  in  the  quality  and  keep- 
ing of  the  oranges?  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  rains  of 
last  winter  came  slowly  and  timely  for  the  agriculturists,  and 
a  larger  portion  of  the  rain  was  taken  up  by  the  soil  than  in 
any  winter  of  my  remembrance  since  I  have  been  in  the 
valley,  a  period  of  twenty-five  years.  The  orchards  were 
soaked  with,  water  for  several  months.  This  probably  explains 
the  reason  for  the  general  non-keeping  quality  of  the  last 
orange  crop;  and  the  only  reason  I  can  assign  for  the  differ- 
ence in  the  keeping  quality  of  the  oranges  from  the  different 
sections  of  my  orchard  was  the  difference  in  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  the  different  fertilizers — the  poor  crop  being 
accentuated,  perhaps,  by  the  stable  manure  put  on  the  orch- 
ard. One  point  was  called  to  my  attention,  to  wit:  that  the 
trees  bordering  a.  deep  ditch  through  the  orchard  had  better 
fruit  than  the  trees  more  distant  from  the  ditch,  indicating 
that  the  ground  needed  draining. 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  nitrogen  or  ammonia,  I  had  supposed 
that  the  same  result  would  attain  in  whatever  form  it  was 
used,  and  have  only  recently  learned  that  this  is  not  the  case. 
For  instance,  ammonia  in  Chile  saltpeter  is  very  quickly  taken 
up  by  the  tree  roots,  or  washed  out  of  the  soil  by  rains  or  irri- 
gation, while  it  may  be  so  combined  in  other  materials  as  to 
give  up  its  ammonia  slowly,  and  this  would  make  a  difference 
in  the  value  of  fertilizers  of  the  same  analysis. 

A  few  years  ago  I  found  some  of  the  limbs  of  the  orange 
trees  dying  and  some  dead.  This  I  have  arrested,  I  believe, 


140  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

by  fertilization.  I  am  this  year  using  the  Bradley  Orange 
Tree  Fertilizer  at  the  rate  of  thirty  pounds  per  tree,  or  twenty- 
four  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  making  two  applications  in  the 
year,  say  one  in  January  and  one  in  July. 

ECONOMY   IN   FERTILIZATION.* 

Numerous  inquiries  regarding  the  necessity  or  expediency  of 
potash  fertilization  in  this  State,  and  the  fact  that  active  mis- 
representation of  my  views  and  teaching  in  the  premises  has 
been  made  by  interested  parties,  render  it  expedient  that  these 
views  should  be  briefly  formulated  in  print  for  the  benefit  of 
persons  interested. 

What  the  Plant  Needs. — It  is  an  elementary  fact,  pretty 
generally  understood,  that,  strictly  speaking,  all  substances 
used  by  plants  for  building  up  their  tissues  are  of  equal  impor- 
tance; in  so  far  as  in  the  entire  absence  of  any  one  of  them,  plant 
development  cannot  occur  at  all.  But  it  is  universally  known 
and  admitted  that  all  but  three  or  four  of  these  are  present  in 
ordinary  soils  in  sufficient  amounts  and  in  an  available  con- 
dition for  the  purposes  of  plant  growth.  The  only  ingredients 
usually  required  to  be  replaced  by  the  use  of  fertilizers  are 
potash,  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen,  and  lime.  Any  fertilizer 
containing  all  of  these  may  be  considered  "complete,"  and 
when  supplied  after  each  crop  in  the  same  amount  and  in  the 
same  proportion  as  has  been  finally  withdrawn  by  the  sale  of 
the  crop,  soil  exhaustion  can  be  indefinitely  prevented  and 
fertility  perpetuated.  The  only  question,  then,  about  which 
there  can  be  any  discussion  is:  whether  in  every  case  the  use  of 
all  the  four  substances  is  really  necessary,  or  whether  one  or  more 
can,  for  the  time  at  least,  be  omitted.  This  question  arises 
most  obviously  with  reference  to  the  great  differences  existing 
in  the  kind  and  amount  of  draft  made  by  different  crops  on 
the  soil.  Thus,  root  crops  withdraw  very  large  amounts  of 
potash  from  the  soil,  while  drawing  but  lightly  upon  phos- 
phoric acid  and  nitrogen;  on  the  other  hand,  cereal  crops  are 
known  to  bear  very  heavily  on  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen, 
while  taking  up  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  potash  only. 
These  facts  form  the  main  basis  of  the  utility  of  rotation  of 

*By  Prof.  E.  W.  Hilgard,  Director  of  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
University  of  California.  In  "  Pacific  Rural  Press,"  November  4,  1896. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION.  141 

crops;  and  the  same  principle  is  recognized  in  the  practical 
fertilization  of  the  root  crops  with  fertilizers  that  include 
chiefly  potash,  while  for  grain  a  combination  of  nitrogen  and 
phosphoric  acid  is  usually  given  and  found  most  profitable. 

Supplying  Deficiencies. — The  reason  why  in  many  cases  the 
return  of  one  or  two  of  these  fertilizing  ingredients  can  be 
omitted  from  the  replacement  is  that  the  soil  itself  frequently 
contains  a  larger  proportion  of  one  or  several  of  these  same 
ingredients  in  a  form  available  to  plants;  that,  moreover,  these 
ingredients,  usually  occurring  in  the  soil  chiefly  in  a  difficult 
soluble  condition,  are  gradually  set  free  by  the  "  fallowing" 
action  of  the  atmosphere  from  their  insoluble  combinations, 
so  as  to  become  available  to  plants;  and  that  if  the  soil  is 
naturally  rich  in  one  or  more  of  these  ingredients,  the  return 
of  such  ingredient  may  be  omitted,  either  after  a  fallow  or  after 
a  crop  that  has  drawn  but  lightly  upon  it.  Thus,  after  a  root 
crop  phosphoric  acid  may  usually  be  omitted  from  fertilization,  if 
the  soil  is  known  to  be  (naturally  or  artificially)  rich  in  phos- 
phoric acid;  and  the  same,  of  course,  is  true  of  potash  and 
nitrogen  in  other  cases.  In  so  doing,  the  husbandman  draws 
upon  the  natural  resources  of  the  land,  availing  himself  of  the 
advantages  of  a  rich  soil;  but  those  who  cultivate  soils  nat- 
urally poor  may  be  compelled  to  return  in  every  case  each  one 
of  the  three  or  four  ingredients  needed  for  and  commonly  used 
in  fertilization. 

Wasteful  Practice. — Were  the  immediate  return  of  everything 
that  the  crop  takes  away  necessary  on  every  soil,  the  possessor 
of  rich  land  would  have  no  advantage  over  the  owner  of  poor 
land,  for  as  soon  as  the  first  flush  of  fertility  is  exhausted  in 
the  virgin  soil,  both  would  be  equally  obliged  to  supply  the  full 
amount  of  ingredients  withdrawn  from  the  soil  by  each  crop. 
But  the  experience  of  centuries  has  shown  that  such  integral 
replacement  is  altogether  unnecessary  on  very  many  lands,  and, 
as  a  result,  the  use  of  a  "  complete  "  fertilizer  is  in  Europe  a 
rare  exception,  save  as  regards  stable  manure.  Farmers  buy 
the  individual  ingredients  as  furnished  in  commerce,  according 
to  the  supposed  requirements  of  the  land,  as  deduced  either 
from  its  previous  history  or  from  the  known  richness  of  the 
soil  in  either  one  or  the  other  ingredient  in  question. 


142  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

Complete  Fertilizers. — In  the  United  States  the  habit  of  pur- 
chasing everything  u ready  made"  prevails  to  an  unusual 
extent,  and  fertilizer  manufacturers  mostly  cater  to  this  demand 
by  supplying  "complete  fertilizers,"  compounded  in  accordance 
with  the  known  requirements  for  certain  crops,  therefore  on  the 
supposition  that  the  soil  supplies  nothing  of  itself.  In  purchasing 
these  complete  fertilizers  the  farmer  is,  therefore,  likely  to  pay 
for  one  or  perhaps  two  ingredients  which  the"  soil  may  not 
require  at  all  to  produce  the  most  profitable  crops,  when  his 
money  would  be  probably  much  better  spent  in  procuring  a 
larger  amount  of  one  substance  specially  needed.  The  enor- 
mous waste  of  money  thus  incurred  is  now  so  well  recognized 
in  Europe  that  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  mixed  fertilizers 
has  been  almost  completely  superseded  by  that  of  the  simples 
themselves.  The  farmer  buys  superphosphate,  potash  salts, 
or  nitrogenous  fertilizers  separately,  in  accordance  with  a 
rational  understanding  of  the  requirements  of  his  land,  more 
particularly  with  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  preceding 
crop,  the  amount  and  the  kind  of  draft  made  on  the  land,  and 
the  character  of  the  latter. 

That  this  is  the  only  rational  and  economical  mode  of  using 
commercial  fertilizers  is  indisputable;  it  is  only  in  the  case  of 
stable  manure  itself  that  the  farmer  is  compelled  to  use  all  the 
ingredients  indiscriminately.  The  farmer  who,  either  from 
lack  of  knowledge  or  from  inertness,  spends  his  money  for  "com- 
plete" fertilizers,  a  part  of  which  he  may  not  need  at  all,  need 
not  be  surprised  if  the  increase  of  crop  resulting  from  their 
application  does  not  yield  adequate  returns  for  the  outlay 
incurred.  The  fertilizer  manufacturer  naturally  desires  to  sell 
his  wares  and  is  not  specially  interested  in  reducing  the  farmer's 
expenditures  therefor. 

California  Soils. — As  regards  the  soils  of  this  State,  experience 
has  shown  that  an  unusually  large  proportion  of  them  remain 
profitably  productive  without  fertilization  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time,  and  that  when  virgin  soils,  or  such  as  have  been 
under  cultivation  for  a  short  series  of  years  only,  fail  to  pro- 
duce satisfactory  crops,  it  is  usually  due  to  other  defects  than 
lack  of  fertility,  requiring  to  be  supplemented  by  fertilization. 
Even  in  the  East  it  takes  from  seven  to  thirty  years  to  reduce 
the  production  of  " fresh"  soils  below  profitableness,  and  the 
nature  of  the  crops  grown  being  known,  it  is  not  difficult  to 


THE    ORANGE    IN   CALIFORNIA— FERTILIZATION.  143 

determine  what  ingredient  or  ingredients  are  most  urgently 
required  to  restore  production. 

A.  simple  leaching  with  water  shows  many  of  our  valley 
soils  to  contain,  in  water-soluble  condition,  a  large  proportion 
of  potash  salts,  so  as  to  render  the  idea  of  supplying  more  of 
the  same  substance  simply  absurd.  Thus,  the  ten-acre  experi- 
mental tract  near  Chino  contains  per  acre  an  average  of  over 
1,200  pounds  of  water-soluble  potash  in  the  first  three  feet, 
equivalent  to  the  amount  required  for  eight  twenty-ton  crops 
of  sugar  beets,  without  drawing  on  the  less  soluble  but  much 
more  copious  soil  store.  Similar  cases  are  common  in  other 
valley  regions  of  the  State.  These  facts  speak  for  themselves. 

Equally  simple  tests  show  that  in  the  great  majority,  proba- 
bly at  least  three  fourths,  of  the  soils  of  the  State,  lime  is  so 
abundant  that  it  need  not  be  supplied  for  centuries  to  come  at 
least.  These  facts  are  easily  ascertainable  by  any  one  having 
even  a  superficial  knowledge  of  chemistry. 

But  more  elaborate  investigation  and  analysis  show  that 
while  both  lime  and  potash  are  present  in  unusually  large  pro- 
portion, as  compared  with  soils  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  in 
Europe,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  are,  on  the  contrary,  as 
a  rule,  present  in  small  amounts,  and  likely  to  become  defi- 
cient in  a  short  time  under  exhaustive  cultivation. 

What  to  Use  First. — Upon  these  plain  and  simple  facts  is 
based  my  recommendation  to  California  farmers  that,  when- 
ever production  of  their  land  becomes  unsatisfactory,  they 
should  try  any  large-scale  fertilizer  first  with  phosphates  and 
nitrogen,  and,  should  this  not  prove  fully  satisfactory,  then 
with  potash  also;  this  being  the  order  in  which  these  substances 
are  likely  to  become  deficient  in  most  of  our  soils  under  culti- 
vation. 

In  the  course  of  time  potash  fertilization  will  become  widely 
necessary  in  this  State,  also;  but  it  is  certainly  not  among  the 
first  things  generally  required,  as  is  actually  the  case  in  the  East 
and  in  Europe.  Under  continuous  heavy  cropping  with  root 
crops,  such  as  beets,  potatoes,  or  artichokes,  or  with  small  fruits, 
such  as  strawberries,  potash  fertilization  has  already,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  become  necessary  at  some  points  and  will  gradually 
become  more  so.  On  the  gray  soils  of  the  foothills  of  Amador 
and  Placer  counties  we  have  found  it  necessary  from  the  very 


144  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

outset,  these  soils  being  as  poor  in  potash  as  Eastern  lands. 
The  same  is  true  of  some  of  the  sandy  lands  of  the  interior. 

My  advice  to  the  farmers  of  California  is  and  has  been  simply 
that,  in  order  not  to  waste  their  money  for  the  purchase  of 
ingredients  probably  not  necessary,  they  should  begin  by  sup- 
plying those  most  likely  to  be  required  at  the  time,  and  to  turn 
to  the  use  of  potash  fertilizers  only  after  they  have  found  the 
effect  of  phosphatic  and  nitrogenous  ones  to  be  unsatisfactory. 

The  efforts  of  those  interested  in  selling  as  much  as  possible 
of  their  manufactured  products  are,  quite  naturally,  in  opposi- 
tion to  this  policy,  but  the  advice  of  the  interested  party  is  not 
usually  the  one  most  likely  to  benefit  the  taker. 

How  to  Make  Experiments. — Plot  experiments  made  with  dif- 
ferent fertilizers  must,  in  order  to  be  of  definite  value,  be  made 
on  a  sufficiently  large  scale  to  eliminate  the  source  of  error 
arising  from  local  differences  in  soil  and  subsoil,  and  must  be 
checked  by  several  check  plots  so  interposed  between  the  others 
as  to  not  only  check  them  by  direct  comparison,  and  to  prevent 
the  washing  of  fertilizers  from  one  fertilized  plot  to  another, 
but  must  also  be  compared,  first  of  all,  among  themselves,  so 
as  to  determine  what  is  the  normal  product  of  the  unfertilized 
land.  It  will  frequently  be  found  that  these  unfertilized  check 
plots  differ  more  widely  between  themselves  than  do  the  fertil- 
ized ones  from  them  or  from  each  other.  It  usually  takes 
several  seasons  to  come  to  definite  results. 

A  question  wholly  aside  from  those  discussed  above  is  that 
of  the  special  modification  of  crops  by  the  use  of  a  surplus  of 
certain  substances  known  to  produce  a  specific  effect.  Thus, 
common  salt  is  known  to  make  asparagus  and  some  other 
vegetables  more  succulent  and  tender;  nitrogenous  matter 
increases  the  size  and  succulence  of  fruits,  and  some  experi- 
ments made  with  potash  fertilizers  on  oranges  point  to  an 
increase  of  sweetness  thereby.  It  is  then  simply  a  question 
whether  or  not  purchasers  appreciate  such  modifications  suffi- 
ciently to  render  their  attainment  a  profitable  undertaking, 
apart  from  any  increase  of  the  crop  or  the  maintenance  of  soil 
fertility. 


THE    ORANGE   IN   CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION.  145 

ADVANTAGE  OF   FERTILIZING  SMALL  TREES.* 

Careful  experiments  have  established  another  important 
point  in  bringing  a  young  orchard  into  speedy  and  profitable 
bearing.  That  is,  that  by  giving  it  a  moderate  dressing  of 
stable  manure,  or  some  other  good  fertilizer,  it  may  be  brought 
into  bearing  one  or  two  years  earlier  than  if  no  fertilizer  had 
been  used.  Experiments  have  been  made  by  fertilizing  some 
parts  of  a  young  orchard  and  leaving  another  part  without, 
demonstrating  that  the  part  fertilized  would  bear  enough  more 
than  the  other,  the  first  crop,  to  far  more  than  pay  for  the  fer- 
tilizer used,  while,  owing  to  the  increased  growth  of  the  trees,  a 
still  greater  difference  in  productiveness  would  be  realized  in 
the  second  crop.  The  fact  is  well  established  that  a  young 
orchard  judiciously  fertilized  and  well  cared  for,  at  five  or  six 
years  from  planting  may  be  brought  into  profitable  bearing, 
while  one  of  the  same  age  which  has  not  been  fertilized  will 
give  small  and  unsatisfactory  returns.  The  two  orchards  cost 
the  same  for  water  and  care,  and  yet  the  one  fertilized  yields  a 
handsome  profit,  while  the  other  little  more  than  pays  ex- 
penses. 

FERTILIZING  THE  SOIL  AS  AFFECTING  THE  ORANGE 
IN  HEALTH  AND  DISEASED 

Fertilizing  for  Growth  and  Fruit. — Primarily  the  orange- 
grower  desires  to  know  how  to  fertilize  so  as  to  stimulate  either 
growth  or  fruit  production.  With  oranges,  as  with  many  other 
agricultural  plants,  one  may  fertilize  in  such  a  manner  that 
excessive  growth  is  stimulated  at  the  expense  of  fruit  produc- 
tion. A  strong  nitrogenous  fertilizer  results  usually  in  much 
growth  and  little  fruit.  This  seems  to  be  particularly  true  if 
the  ammonia  is  added  in  an  organic  form.  While  trees  are 
young  it  is  probably  well  to  favor  the  growth  of  wood  princi- 
pally, but  at  an  age  of  seven  or  eight  years  from  the  bud,  the 
tree,  if  it  has  grown  properly,  will  have  attained  sufficient  size 
to  begin  to  produce  a  fair  quantity  of  fruit.  It  should  then  be 
given  a  slightly  modified  fertilizer,  containing  more  potash  and 

*From  report  of  J.  M.  Edmison,  to  Riverside  Horticultural  Club,  Febru- 
ary, 1899. 

t  Extracts  from  an  article  by  Herbert  J.  Webster,  Assistant  in  Division  of 
Vegetable  Pathology,  Washington,  D.  C.    A  deduction  from  Florida  experi- 
ence, which  naturally  will  interest  California  citrus-growers. 
IOC 


146  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

phosphoric  acid  and  less  nitrogen,  to  "stimulate  fruit  production 
as  much  as  possible.  The  so-called  chemical  manures  appear 
to  be  much  more  active  in  stimulating  fruit  production  than 
organic  manures. 

Effect  on  Quality  of  Fruit. — The  experience  of  many  orange- 
growers  indicates  that  the  quality  of  the  fruit  may  be  largely 
controlled  by  fertilization.  As  oranges  are  purchased  very 
largely  on  their  appearance  and  quality,  this  becomes  an 
important  consideration  in  manuring.  Many  intelligent  grow- 
ers are  coming  to  believe  that  the  best  results  can  be  obtained 
by  giving  the  trees  an  application  of  that  element  only  which 
seems  to  be  lacking,  and  not  using,  as  a  majority  do,  a  com- 
plete fertilizer,  in  definite  proportions,  regardless  of  whether 
all  the  elements  are  needed  by  the  plant  or  not.  If  it  can  be 
determined  by  the  appearance  of  the  tree  and  fruit  what 
element  is  lacking,  this  would  seem  to  be  the  most  rational 
way  to  fertilize. 

It  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  by  careful  study  patho- 
logical characters  induced  by  starvation  might  be  found,  which 
would  serve  to  indicate  clearly  the  lack  of  any  particular 
element.  Some  growers  claim  to  be  able  to  recognize  these 
characters  now,  and  are  fertilizing  largely  on  this  modified  plan, 
taking  advantage  of  what  we  might  call  the  sign  language  of 
the  tree.  Some  of  these  characters  will  be  mentioned  below 
under  the  consideration  of  the  different  elements  used. 

Effect  on  Soil  Moisture. — In  fertilization  at  least  two  .factors 
must  usually  be  considered:  the  element  of  plant-food  supplied, 
and  the  effect  of  this  upon  the  soil  as  aiding  it  in  supplying 
the  plant  with  moisture.  The  heavy  application,  in  late  fall 
or  early  spring,  of  an  organic  manure,  like  blood  and  bone, 
which  is  extensively  used  in  Florida,  is  liable  to  lead  to  injuri- 
ous effects  during  the  spring  drought,  if  the  trees  are  on  high 
and  dry  land.  On  the  other  hand,  such  soils  might  be  ameli- 
orated by  using  substances  which  attract  water  and  increase 
the  surface  tension  of  soil  moisture.  Nitrogen,  for  instance, 
used  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda,  and  potash,  in  the  form  of 
kainit,  would  tend  to  draw  up  the  subsoil  moisture  and  prob- 
ably aid  largely  in  supplying  the  necessary  moisture  during 
this  trying  season.  The  use  of  organic  manures,  on  the  con- 
trary, would  only  exaggerate  the  damage  produced  by  drought. 


THE    ORANGE   IN    CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION.  147 

If  groves  are  on  very  moist  land,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in 
Florida,  where  the  necessity  is  to  lessen  the  moisture  rather 
than  to  increase  it,  some  form  of  organic  manure,  as  muck  or 
blood  and  bone,  might  be  found  of  benefit. 

Effect  of  Fertilizers  on  the  Orange  in  Health. — The  elements 
which  need  to  be  supplied  in  fertilization  to  most  Florida  orange 
groves  are  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus;  or,  using  the 
terms  in  which  they  are  expressed  in  most  analyses  of  fertil- 
izers, ammonia,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid.  The  application 
of  lime  would  also  prove  of  benefit  to  many  groves.  Probably 
no  element  of  plant-food  used  in  the  fertilization  of  orange 
groves  should  be  more  carefully  considered,  with  respect  to 
both  form  and  quantity,  than  nitrogen.  It  is  the  most  costly 
and  at  the  same  time  the  most  dangerous  element  to  use,  as 
excessive  applications  are  liable  to  result  in  extensive  dropping 
and  splitting  of  the  fruit  or  in  the  production  of  the  serious 
disease  known  as  die-back. 

Effect  of  Nitrogen. — A  grower  may  with  considerable  certainty 
determine  by  the  appearance  of  his  trees  the  condition  of  his 
grove  in  respect  to  the  supply  of  nitrogen  available  in  the  soil. 
An  abundance  of  nitrogen  is  indicated  by  a  dark  green  color  of 
the  foliage  and  rank  growth.  The  fruit  shows  the  effect  of  an 
abundance  of  nitrogen  by  being,  in  general,  large,  with  a  com- 
paratively thick  and  rough  rind.  If  the  trees  have  a  yellowish 
foliage,  with  comparatively  small  leaves,  and  show  little  or  no 
growth,  there  is  probably  a  lack  of  nitrogen.  In  this  case  there 
is  but  little  fruit  formed,  and  that  formed  is  small  and  usually 
colors  early.  If  the  tree  is  starving  from  a  lack  of  nitrogen, 
the  foliage  will  become  very  light  yellow  and  sparse,  and  the 
small  limbs  will  die,  as  will  also  the  large  limbs  in  extreme 
cases.  If  the  starvation  is  continued,  no  fertilizer  being  added, 
the  tree  will  finally  die  back  nearly  to  the  ground  and  prob- 
ably die  out  entirely.  The  extreme  symptoms  of  general 
starvation  from  lack  of  all  elements  are  probably  nearly  the 
same.  The  nitrogen  used  in  fertilization  is  commonly  derived 
from  mineral  or  organic  sources.  Of  the  former,  sulphate  of 
ammonia  and  nitrate  of  soda  are  the  forms  most  used;  of  the 
latter,  muck,  dried  blood,  blood  and  bone,  cottonseed  meal, 
tankage,  fish  scrap,  stable  manure,  etc.,  are  the  forms  most 
commonly  employed. 


148  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

Stable  Manure  of  Doubtful  Utility. — Barn  manure  is  largely 
used  by  many  growers,  who  still  hold  to  the  tradition  that 
chemical  manures  are  injurious  to  the  plants.  The  benefits  of 
barn  manure  in  an  orange-grove  are  in  serious  question.  The 
fruits  produced  by  nitrogen  from  this  source  are  usually  large, 
coarse,  thick-skinned,  with  abundant  rag,  and  of  inferior 
flavor.  If  barn  manure  is  used — and  most  growers  have  a 
limited  quantity  and  desire  to  use  what  they  have — it  should 
be  spread  over  the  grove  lightly,  so  that  each  tree  receives  only 
a  small  amount.  Where  such  manure  is  depended  upon  as 
the  main  element  of  fertilization,  liberal  dressings  of  potash 
should  be  occasionally  applied;  this  will  tend  to  correct  the 
evils  of  an  overbalanced  nitrogenous  fertilizer.  What  has  been 
said  as  to  the  effect  of  barn  manure  on  the  quality  of  fruit 
applies  equally  to  the  effects  produced  by  muck,  cottonseed 
meal,  blood  and  bone,  tankage,  etc. 

In  general,  organic  fertilizers  do  not  stimulate  fruiting  to  the 
same  extent  as  the  mineral  fertilizers.  It  is  probably  better 
economy  to  apply  such  fertilizers  to  annual  crops,  cereals, 
garden  truck,  etc. 

Mineral  Nitrogen. — The  mineral  nitrogen  manures,  nitrate 
of  soda  and  sulphate  of  ammonia,  apparently  stimulate  pro- 
duction of  fruit  more  than  organic  manures,  and  yet  promote 
a  fair  general  growth.  The  fruit  produced  by  fertilization  with 
these  salts,  used  in  correct  proportions  with  the  other  elements 
which  it  is  necessary  to  apply,  is  usually  of  good  quality,  being 
solid,  juicy,  and  rich,  with  thin  skin  and  little  rag.  Sulphate 
of  ammonia  has  the  effect,  growers  testify,  of  sweetening  the 
fruit  to  a  considerable  extent.  There  seems  to  be  little  doubt 
as  to  the  correctness  of  this  view,  but  why  it  is  so  remains 
in  question.  The  sweetening  is  probably  more  marked  if 
there  is  a  slight  deficiency  in  potash.  The  use  of  very  large 
quantities  of  either  sulphate  of  ammonia  or  nitrate  of  soda 
may  result  disastrously,  acting  as  "chemical  poison,"  killing 
the  trees  outright  and  causing  them  to  throw  off  their  leaves. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  has  been  very  widely  used  among 
orange-growers.  Nitrate  of  soda  has  been  but  little  used  thus 
far,  but  is  apparently  growing  in  favor.  Its  insecticide  and 
water-attracting  properties  are  probably  much  greater  than 
those  of  sulphate  of  ammonia. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION.  149 

Potash  Fertilizers. — In  fertilizing  the  orange,  potash  is  most 
frequently  used  either  in  the  form  of  the  sulphate  or  of  wood 
ashes.  While  sulphate  of  potash  has  been  most  widely  used, 
there  is  apparently  little  evidence  that  it  is  superior  to  other 
forms.  Muriate  of  pot'ash,  containing  the  equivalent  of  about 
fifty  per  cent  of  actual  potash,  the  form  probably  most  used 
in  the  apple  and  peach  orchards  of  the  North,  has  been  little 
used  in  orange  groves.  Apparently  those  who  have  used  this 
form  have  obtained  uniformly  good  results.  Kainit,  or  German 
potash  salt,  which  is  a  crude  double  salt  of  magnesium  sulphate 
with  calcium  chloride,  containing  the  equivalent  of  from  twelve 
to  fourteen  per  cent  of  actual  potash,  is  a  form  much  used  in 
Northern  orchards  and  is  promising  for  use  in  orange  groves. 
Its  very  active  effect  in  increasing  the  surface  tension  of  the 
soil  moisture,  and  thus  attracting  water  to  the  trees,  might 
make  it  an  excellent  form  to  add  in  early  spring  to  aid  the 
plant  in  withstanding  the  spring  drought,  which  is  so  frequently 
injurious  to  the  orange  tree  and  sometimes  fatal  to  the  fruit 
crop.  Growers  not  supplied  with  facilities  for  irrigation  would, 
undoubtedly,  find  it  profitable  to  consider  carefully  points  of 
this  nature  in  fertilization.  The  noticeable  effect  of  potash  on 
the  orange  tree  appears  to  be  its  aid  in  completing  and  matur- 
ing the  wood.  Apparently  an  insufficient  amount  of  potash  is 
shown  by  an  excessive  growth  of  weak,  immature  wood,  which 
does  not  harden  up  as  winter  approaches  and  is  liable  to  be 
injured  by  frost. 

An  abundance  of  potash,  in  the  form  of  sulphate  of  potash 
or  tobacco  stems,  is  said  by  many  growers  to  produce  excess- 
ively sour  fruit.  That  potash  is  very  necessary  in  fruit 
production  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  fruit  contains  a  large 
percentage  of  this  element.  An  average  of  fifteen  analyses  of 
different  varieties  of  Florida  oranges  shows  52.05  per  cent  to 
be  about  the  usual  amount  of  potash  in  the  ash  of  the  orange 
fruit.  The  ash  in  these  fifteen  analyses  averaged  0.916  per 
cent,  or  less  than  one  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  of  the  fruit. 

Phosphoric  Acid. — Phosphoric  acid,  which  is  a  very  necessary 
element  of  fertilization  on  Florida  orange  lands,  is  mostly  used 
in  the  form  of  dissolved  bone  black,  acidulated  bone  or  phos- 
phate rock,  soft  phosphate,  raw  bone,  guano,  etc.  The  immedi- 
ate effect  of  phosphoric  acid  on  the  orange  tree  and  fruit  is 
little  understood.  Several  intelligent  growers  claim  to  be  able 


150  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

to  recognize  the  effect  of  phosphorus  starvation  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  new  growth  of  leaves.  If  these,  when  they  first 
push  out  or  while  they  are  still  young  and  tender,  present  a 
slightly  variegated  appearance,  mottled  with  light  and  dark 
green,  it  is  claimed  they  are  suffering  from  lack  of  phosphorus, 
and  that  if  a  liberal  application  of  some  soluble  phosphate  is 
applied  this  appearance  may  be  checked.  If  this  can  be  shown 
to  be  true  it  will  prove  a  valuable  index  to  the  available 
quantity  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  soil.  A  similar  appearance 
may,  however,  appear  in  light  cases  of  the  so-called  "frenching," 
a  disease,  or  probably  more  properly  a  symptom  of  disease, 
which  is  not  uncommon.  Phosphorus  starvation,  it  is  true, 
may  have  some  effect  in  inducing  this  disease. 

Lime. — Lime,  it  is  usually  supposed,  is  present  in  sufficient 
quantities  in  most  of  our  soils.  It  may  be  questioned,  how- 
ever, whether  the  common  high  pine  land  and  scrub  land,  and 
indeed  much  of  the  fiat  woods  and  hammock  of  the  interior  of 
Florida,  might  not  be  benefited  by  dressings  of  lime.  From 
the  superiority  of  oranges  grown  on  soils  which  are  known  to 
be  rich  in  lime  it  would  seem  that  this  is  probably  a  very 
desirable  and  necessary  element  for  the  production  of  superior 
fruit.  The  fine,  smooth-skinned,  and  deliciously  flavored 
Indian  and  Halifax  River  oranges,  with  their  characteristic 
aroma,  are  grown  largely  on  soils  rich  in  lime  from  shell 
mounds  and  coralline  and  coquina  rock.  The  oranges  pro- 
duced in  the  noted  Orange  Bend  hammock,  which  are  of  dis- 
tinctive quality,  with  delicate,  rich  aroma,  and  thin,  smooth 
rind,  are  produced  on  a  soil  underlaid  by  a  marl  rich  in  lime. 
Lime  soils  are  in  many  orange  countries  considered  superior 
for  orange  growing. 

Dr.  A.  Stutzer,  in  his  work  on  the  Fertilization  of  Tropical 
Cultivated  Plants,  writes:  "The  orange  and  citron  fruits 
desire  a  deep,  porous,  dry  soil,  rich  in  lime.  If  sufficient  lime 
is  not  present  the  fruit  will  be  thick-skinned  and  not  have  a 
fine  aroma."  It  appears  also  that  the  effect  of  abundant  lime 
is  to  hasten  to  some  extent  the  time  of  ripening.  Fruits 
grown  on  soils  rich  in  lime  appear  to  color  and  become  suit- 
able for  shipping  somewhat  earlier  than  those  grown  on  soils 
containing  but  little  lime.  To  secure  a  good  quality  of  fruit 
the  regular  application  of  lime  may  be  found  very  desirable  in 
many  groves. 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — FROST    PROTECTION.  151 

Fertilization  as  Affecting  Disease. — Probably  the  most  com- 
mon cause  of  injury  to  orange  trees  is  a  lack  of  fertilization, 
yet  it  is  not  infrequent  for  disease  to  be  induced  or  aggravated 
by  excessive  or  improper  fertilization.  This  may,  indeed,  be 
of  much  more  importance  than  we  are  at  present  inclined  to 
believe.  One  of  the  forms  of  die-back,  a  common  and 
destructive  disease  of  the  orange,  is  quite  evidently  due  to 
errors  in  fertilization.  In  other  cases  the  disease  appears  to 
be  caused  by  planting  in  improper  soil. 


FEOST  PROTECTION. 

The  Riverside  Horticultural  Club  appointed  a  committee 
consisting  of  J.  H.  Reed,  E.  W.  Holmes,  E.  L.  Koethen,  E.  A. 
Zumbro,  and  J.  H.  Martin — all  practical  orange-growers — to 
investigate  the  question  of  orchard  protection  against  frost. 
The  committee,  after  a  careful  investigation  of  all  the  methods 
in  use  and  experimented  with,  made  its  report,  which  was 
adopted,  as  follows:* 

With  the  assistance  of  some  fifteen  or  twenty  citizens  inter- 
ested in  the  study  of  the  points  involved,  a  most  complete  test 
has  been  made  of  the  many  different  methods  employed  to  pre- 
vent frost  damage.  With  such  a  force  of  competent  and  impar- 
tial observers,  it  was  possible  to  secure  data  of  much  value  in 
forming  an  estimate  of  the  efficiency  of  the  various  plans  made 
use  of.  Careful  comparison  was  made  between  those  orchards 
where  no  work  was  done,  and  where  no  direct  effect  of  the  fire 
was  probable,  and  those  where  the  different  methods  were  being 
tried.  As  indicated  by  our  partial  report  at  the  last  meeting 
of  the  club,  these  tests  were  in  some  particulars  emkiently  satis- 
factory, as  showing  the  way  to  definite  conclusions. 

The  exceptionally  long  period  of  cold  following  gave  addi- 
tional opportunity  to  verify  the  first  conclusions  reached,  and 
subsequent  investigations  made  by  ourselves,  as  well  as  by  other 
citizens  who  have  awakened  to  the  possibility  of  protecting  their 
property,  strengthened  and  confirmed  the  opinion  formed  as  the 
result  of  the  tests  already  partially  reported  upon. 

*  Riverside  Press,  February  19,  1898. 


152  STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

Some  theories  are  proven  to  have  little  practical  value,  and 
members  of  your  committee  have  modified  their  views  some- 
what in  consequence.  No  preconceived  notions  have  been 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  way  of  a  thoroughly  practical  study  of 
the  facts  as  they  exist,  to  the  end  that  the  growers  may  not,  for 
the  lack  of  definite  knowledge  as  to  the  direction  their  efforts 
should  take,  neglect  reasonable  precautions  hereafter  to  insure 
the  safety  of  their  crops.  These,  therefore,  are  our  conclusions: 

First— There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  temperature  of 
our  orchards  may  be  materially  raised  by  the  use  of  dry  heat. 

Second — The  radiation  of  the  earth's  heat  can  be  very  con- 
siderably lessened  by  moist  smudges,  when  these  are  started 
early  enough  and  are  properly  managed. 

Third — The  possibility  of  raising  the  dew  point  on  one  of  the 
dry  cold  nights  peculiar  to  our  climate,  sufficiently  to  prevent 
damage,  by  means  of  steam-producing  apparatus,  seems 
impracticable. 

Fourth — Fruit  and  trees  can  undoubtedly  be  saved,  even  in 
the  coldest  sections,  by  covering  them  with  cloth  or  matting; 
but  the  expense  involved  makes  this  method  impossible  on  the 
part  of  the  ordinary  grower. 

Fifth — It  is  found  that  the  temperature  in  an  old  seedling 
grove,  or  where  tall  windbreaks  afford  to  smaller  fruit  trees  a 
like  protection,  the  temperature  is  almost  invariably  one  or 
two  degrees  higher  than  in  exposed  orchards  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood.  This  fact  seems  to  thoroughly  upset  the  theory 
strongly  held  by  many  intelligent  growers  that  the  tall,  well- 
located  windbreak  is  a  disadvantage,  the  contrary  seeming  to 
be  the  truth. 

Sixth — It  is  found  that  the  temperature  twenty  feet  above 
the  ground  is  from  one  to  two  degrees  higher  than  at  the  sur- 
face, and  that,  as  a  rule,  when  the  cold  is  severe  enough  to 
injure  the  ripest  fruit,  fifty  feet  from  the  ground  there  is  almost 
invariably  a  temperature  above  the  freezing  point  of  water. 

Prof.  Zumbro,  who  has  given  special  attention  to  this  matter, 
finds  that  at  the  height  of  fifty  feet  the  temperature  is  from 
five  to  ten  degrees  higher  than  at  the  surface,  when  the  air  is 
not  in  motion.  When  there  is  any  considerable  breeze  it 
varies  but  little. 

Seventh — Our  conclusion  is  that,  all  things  considered,  the 
coal  baskets,  sufficiently  numerous,  will  prove  the  most  satis- 


THE    ORANGE    IN   CALIFORNIA — FROST    PROTECTION.  153 

factory  and  effective  means  of  warming  the  orchards  yet  made 
use  of.  It  is  true,  the  oil  pots  make  a  far  hotter  fire,  and  are 
neither  expensive  nor  difficult  to  manage,  but  the  deposit  of 
lampblack  upon  tree  and  fruit  resulting  from  their  use  con- 
demns this  system  for  general  use. 

As  to  the  value  of  smudging,  the  members  of  your  com- 
mittee are  not  so  well  agreed.  Because  of  less  sharply  defined 
results,  we  find  it  more  difficult  to  come  to  definite — at  least 
uniform — conclusions.  But,  under  certain  conditions,  we  are 
convinced  that,  properly  used,  it  may  be  made  a  valuable 
means  of  protection.  We  think  this  especially  true  in  locali- 
ties where  the  temperature  never  falls  but  little  below  the 
danger  point,  and  where  there  are  considerable  solid  areas  of 
young  orchards  exposed.  Here  it  will  work  well  if  the  protec- 
tion is  made  general.  But  where  the  danger  is  considerable, 
we  think  it  wise  to  be  prepared  to  use  dry  heat  even  where  in 
connection  with  the  smudge.  The  benefit  from  smudging  is 
probably  as  much  from  its  protecting  fruit  and  trees  from  the 
sudden  rays  of  the  morning  sun  after  a  freezing  night  as  from 
modifying  temperature  during  the  time  of  danger. 

Experience  demonstrates  that  flooding  or.  running  water  in 
connection  with  dry  heat  or  smudging  is  a  valuable  adjunct. 
One  of  the  committee  who  has  been  testing  this  matter  care- 
fully for  three  years  is  disposed  to  think  that  the  direct  benefit 
from  running  water  is  overestimated  by  the  majority  of  grow- 
ers. Its  value  in  putting  orchards  in  condition  to  withstand 
quite  severe  weather  safely  is  unquestioned,  but  the  committee 
are  inclined  to  think  that  entire  dependence  upon  this  method 
will  occasionally  result  in  serious  loss  to  those  who  trust  to 
this  means  alone,  especially  when  used  in  young  orchards. 

As  to  the  number  of  baskets  needed  when  coal  is  used,  we 
find  the  most  decided  and  satisfactory  results  have  been  gained 
where  from  twenty  to  fifty  coal  fires  have  been  used  to  each 
acre.  If  intelligently  and  energetically  used,  this  plan  will 
never  fail,  except  when  the  mercury  drops  below  24°  for  a  long 
while,  and  even  then  it  is  believed  the  larger  portion  of  a  crop 
may  be  saved  if  anything  like  a  general  use  of  such  fires  be 
secured.  The  smaller  number  of  fires  named  has  in  numerous 
cases,  and  even  when  a  man  was  working  alone,  secured  a  rise 
of  from  three  to  five  degrees  and  saved  a  crop.  Can  it  be 
doubted  that  fifty  fires  per  acre  used  in  every  orchard  would 


154  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

save  both  trees  and  crop  on  the  coldest  night  ever  known  in 
California's  history? 

To  equip  an  orchard  with  fifty  baskets  to  the  acre  means  an 
outlay  of  only  a  little  over  $5.  The  fuel  to  run  them  one 
night  costs  from  $2.50  to  $3.  If  a  crop  of  Navels  upon  it  is 
worth  $400,  it  will  pay  well  to  spend  in  fuel  and  labor  $4  per 
night,  or  one  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  crop  to  insure  its 
safety.  In  the  orange  region  of  Southern  California  it  is  not 
usual  to  have  more  than  two  or  three  nights  in  a  season 
when  the  fruit  is  in  danger.  But  even  if,  as  in  the  present 
season,  the  period  of  cold  is  more  extended,  will  it  not  pay  to 
expend  at  least  as  much  as  one  pays  for  his  irrigating  water 
to  secure  the  safe  maturing  of  a  crop  it  has  cost  him  a  year's 
labor  and  heavy  expense  to  produce? 

The  conclusion  is  obvious  that  we  have  only  to  provide  for 
the  insurance  of  this  sort  of  property  exactly  as  we  would  in 
the  case  of  that  liable  to  destruction  by  fire,  to  be  enabled  to 
follow  the  business  of  orange  and  lemon  growing  with  the 
certainty  of  having  perfect  fruit  to  market  at  the  season's  end. 

While  the  practicability  of  protecting  our  orchards  from 
frost  seems  established,  the  problem  of  the  most  economical 
and  scientific  means  of  accomplishing  this  is  probably  yet  to 
be  solved.  However  well  the  wire  baskets  may  serve  us  now, 
there  doubtless  will  be  improved  methods  for  burning  coal, 
and  even  other  material  may  be  found  that  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose better;  and  while  wet  straw  seems  at  present  to  be  the 
most  available  for  smudges,  doubtless,  when  the  need  is  made 
known,  chemists  will  find  some  vapor-producing  material  more 
compact,  efficient,  and  economical.  Hence  we  recommend  that 
the  club  appoint  a  permanent  committee  to  continue  these 
investigations. 

ROOFING  PROTECTION  AGAINST  FROST,  AND  HEAT 
IN  SUMMER. 

After  having  tried  several  other  methods  of  protecting  trees 
from  frost,  none  of  which  proved  absolutely  safe,  the  Everest 
Rancho  incorporation  at  Arlington  Place,  Riverside  County, 
decided  to  roof  over  a  portion  of  their  orange  grove.  Such 
were  the  results  of  the  first  trial  on  three  acres  that  the  past 
year  they  extended  it  over  seventeen  acres,  shown  in  the 
accompanying  illustrations,  made  from  photographs  taken  on 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CALIFORNIA — FROST    PROTECTION. 


155 


the  spot.  The  proposition  embraced  in  the  covering  is  to  pre- 
vent the  warm  air  from  leaving  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
trees  at  night.  During  the  day  the  earth  and  trees  become 
warm,  but  as  the  night  cools  the  atmosphere  the  process  of 


Roofing  over  an  orange  grove  at  the  Everest  Rancho,  Arlington  Place,  Riverside 

County. 

radiation  sets  in  and  the  heat  from  the  earth  and  the  trees  is 
carried  off,  the  cold  frosty  atmosphere  taking  its  place.  The 
idea  was  conceived  of  covering  the  orchard  with  canvas,  which 
could  be  rolled  up  in  the  morning  and  let  out  at  night.  One 


Covering  shown  from  beneath. 


acre  was  covered  in  this  way,  but  it  was  found  to  be  too  expen- 
sive and  unstable,  as  the  canvas  would  get  wet  and  decay. 
The  present  method  costs  about  $450  an  acre.  The  fruit  borne 
by  the  trees  under  this  covering  has  matured  perfectly  and  the 


156  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

covering  serves  two  purposes,  i.  e.  protecting  the  trees  from  the 
effects  of  frost,  and  from  excessive  heat  in  the  summer. 

The  posts  are  3x4  redwood,  18  feet  long.  The  trees  are  so 
planted  that  the  posts  are  placed  21  feet  3  inches  apart 
each  way,  setting  them  3  feet  in  the  ground,  thus  allowing 
about  15  feet  in  the  clear  for  height  of  the  trees,  which  is  suf- 
ficient for  most  Navel  trees.  These  posts  are  connected  by 
pieces  of  1x4  pine  suitably  braced,  on  top  of  which  another 
strip  of  1x4  has  been  securely  nailed  to  prevent  the  whole 
from  swaying  sideways  with  the  weight  of  the  cover.  This, 
when  placed  in  position,  is  braced  horizontally  with  braces  of 
1x3  pine,  7  feet  long.  Thus  is  secured  a  framework  that  is 
quite  rigid  and  on  which  a  man  may  walk  freely,  provided  he 
has  a  head  clear  enough  to  walk  on  a  four-inch  strip. 

Over  this  were  stretched  galvanized  iron  wires,  diagonally,  of 
No.  11  wire,  which  are  securely  stapled  on  top  of  each  post  and  to 
the  horizontal  braces.  These  diagonal  wires  are  stretched  very 
tight  with  iron  stretchers,  and  throw  a  portion  of  the  weight  of 
the  cover  on  to  posts  directly  that  would  otherwise  increase 
weight  on  the  bents  of  1  x  4  pine,  21  feet  3  inches  long.  These 
diagonal  wires  are  supplemented  by  wires  running  across  the 
framework  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  cover 
is  laid.  These  four  wires — two  diagonal  and  two  cross  wires- 
steady  the  whole  construction  and  distribute  the  weight  more 
evenly. 

Thus  is  the  framework  completed.  For  the  cover  Arizona 
laths  were  used,  being  the  lightest  and  best  for  the  purpose,  and 
were  wove  on  a  lath  machine  into  common  chicken  fencing, 
placing  the  lath  one  inch  apart  and  weaving  with  six  wires — 
three  double  strands.  This  is  made  in  sections  21  feet  3  inches 
long  and  rolled  up  preparatory  to  being  taken  to  cover.  In 
covering  the  framewrork  four  rolls  made  of  four-foot  lath  and 
one  roll  of  five-foot  lath  are  used,  thus  filling  out  the  space 
over  each  tree  of  2L  feet  3  inches  as  nearly  as  is  necessary.  It 
takes  100  lath  to  each  roll,  or  500  to  each  tree;  and  as  the  trees 
are  planted  100  to  the  acre,  50,000  laths  are  required  to  the 
acre.  This  Arizona  lath  is  cheaper  than  ordinary  pine  in  that 
part  of  the  State. 

The  crop  of  fruit  under  this  covering  the  present  season  was 
of  good  size,  color,  and  quality,  and  while  the  construction  of 
the  cover  could  be  improved  upon  and  no  doubt  will  be,  it  has 


THE    ORANGE   IN   CALIFORNIA — QUESTIONS.  157 

proved  of  great  benefit  as  built.  The  trees  have  blossomed  very 
well  this  spring,  and  a  good  crop  of  fruit  is  expected  the  coming 
winter. 

LEAF    SHELTER    AN    ADVANTAGE.* 

Old  "Sunny  Side"  has  again  covered  herself  with  glory. 
Eight  consecutive  big  crops  is  her  record.  I  had  sold  five 
carloads  before  the  chilly  night  of  December  29th,  and  have 
just  finished  delivering  the  second  lot  of  five  cars  on  a  satis- 
factory cash  sale.  Since  the  "chill"  I  have  delivered  in  bulk 
at  the  packing-house,  and  the  fruit  has  packed  nearly  four 
fifths  "fancy,"  and  this  fruit,  too,  was,  by  special  contract  with 
the  buyer,  picked  from  the  outside  of  the  trees  where  most 
exposed. 

The  fact  is  that  my  twenty-acre  orchard  of  1,500  orange  trees 
is  well  prepared  to  resist  chilly  weather.  The  trees  are  so  large, 
so  thrifty,  and  so  densely  covered  outside,  that  they  are  like 
so  many  houses  shingled  with  broad  orange  leaves  clear  to  the 
ground.  The  interior  spaces  under  each  tree,  filled  with  the 
sun-baked  air  of  the  day,  bid  defiance  to  "Jack"  on  a  cool 
night,  and  prevent  him  getting  in  his  diabolical  work  before 
another  day's  sunshine  comes  along  to  oust  him  entirely.  I 
have  never  lost  a  crop,  though  of  course  some  of  the  fruit  on 
the  outside  will  sometimes  "take  cold";  but  there  is  great 
protection  in  a  shelter  of  thick,  broad,  healthy,  glossy  leaves. 


QUESTIONS  AFFECTING  OEANGE  CULTTJKE. 

During  the  year  1898  the  Horticultural  Society  of  Highlands 
invited  its  members  and  citrus-growers  having  any  questions 
regarding  any  phase  of  orange  culture  to  send  them  to  the 
Society,  for  submission  to  the  orange-growers  of  the  State. 
The  following  were  received  and  answered :  f 

QUESTION  :  Should  hardpan  within  two  feet  of  the  surface  be 
considered  a  barrier  to  the  planting  of  orange  trees  f 

PROF.  E.  W.  HILGARD,  of  Berkeley:  Yes,  if  impenetrable 
by  roots. 

J.  H.  REED,  of  Riverside:   Yes. 

*B.  B.  Barney,  in  California  Fruit  Grower,  February  1,  1896. 
t  Reported  by  W.  M.  Bristol,  chairman  of  committee. 


158  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

H.  D.  MOORE,  of  Redlands:  Hardpan  within  two  feet  of  the 
surface  will  eventually  ruin  any  orchard.  Its  effects  will 
probably  be  noticed  by  the  third  or  fourth  year. 

DIGEST  OF  DISCUSSION  BY  THE  CLUB:  The  question  doubtless 
refers  to  the  natural  hardpan  underlying  the  red  mesa  soil 
common  in  California,  and  not  to  the  artificial  hardpan  so 
called,  which  is  formed  in  orchards  by  the  tramping  of  horses 
used  in  cultivating.  The  latter  occurs  immediately  below  the 
cultivated  stratum,  and  is  caused  by  driving  over  the  ground 
too  soon  after  rain  or  irrigation.  The  natural  hardpan  may 
be  divided  into  three  classes,  namely:  gravelly,  sandy,  and 
clayey  hardpan.  It  is  found  at  varying  depths,  and  runs 
from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  in  thickness.  Analysis  shows 
it  to  be  deficient  in  nitrogen,  but  rich  in  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid,  the  same  being  true  of  the  looser  soil  found  underlying 
it.  In  many  cases  it  is  impervious  to  either  water  or  roots, 
and  consequently  marks  the  downward  limit  of  the  soil  capable 
of  holding  moisture  or  of  yielding  plant-food  to  the  tree. 

QUESTION:  Is  it  advisable  to  break  up  this  hardpan,  and  will 
it  stay  broken  up? 

PROF.  HILGARD:    Yes,  to  both. 

MR.  REED:  Other  conditions  being  markedly  favorably,  yes. 
If  well  done  it  will  stay  broken  up. 

MR.  MOORE:  If  an  orchard  is  already  planted  in  such  soil, 
it  would  be  advisable  to  put  in  three  or  four  cartridges  at  equal 
distances  around  the  trees.  The  soil  has  been  found  to  pack 
down  hard  again  in  three  years  after  blasting. 

C.  E.  MOSHER.  of  Pasadena:  Yes.  Hardpan  once  broken 
up  will  not  form  again. 

THE  CLUB:  Yes,  if  the  stratum  is  not  too  thick.  The  grav- 
elly hardpan,  which  is  probably  the  hardest  for  roots  or  water 
to  penetrate,  is  the  most  easily  and  permanently  broken  up. 

QUESTION:  What  is  the  best  method  of  blasting  in  such  cases, 
and  what  is  the  expense? 

PROFESSOR  HILGARD:  Bore  into  the  hardpan  and  use  one- 
half  pound  of  No.  2  giant  powder  in  each  hole. 

MR.  REED:  Giant  powder.  Expense  depends  on.  condition 
of  hardpan. 

MR.  MOSHER:   I  took  the  contract  for  blasting  the  hardpan 


THE   ORANGE   IN   CALIFORNIA — QUESTIONS.  159 

on  seven  acres  of  land  near  Raymond  Hill,  South  Pasadena, 
at  15  cents  per  hole,  and  cleared  $5  a  day  at  it.  The  top  soil 
was  24  feet  thick,  the  hardpan  3  feet.  I  dug  the  holes  to  hard- 
pan,  then  with  a  1^-inch  wood  bit  welded  onto  a  5-foot  shank 
I  bored  down  20  inches  into  it,  put  in  one  stick  of  No.  2  giant 
powder,  tamping  it  with  fine  earth.  It  blew  a  hole  clear  through 
the  hardpan,  the  hole  afterward  being  cleaned  out  and  filed 
with  top  soil. 

THE  CLUB:  The  foregoing  replies  were  indorsed.  No.  2 
giant  powder  is  preferable  to  No.  1 ,  because  its  slower  action 
cracks  ancl  shakes  the  hardpan  more  thoroughly.  Good  results 
have  been  obtained  in  orchards  already  set,  by  putting  one  stick 
of  powder  directly  under  the  tree.  It  is  important  that  the 
charge  be  in  the  hardpan — not  under  it.  If  exploded  below  the 
hardpan  its  force  is  expended  in  making  a  cavity  there  without 
breaking  up  the  overlying  stratum.  It  is  well  to  clean  out 
the  hole  and  fill  with  sand,  thus  insuring  the  free  penetration 
of  water  to  the  substratum.  Of  course  in  putting  the  blast 
directly  under  the  tree,  the  hole  must  be  made  slanting.  Some 
roots  are  necessarily  broken,  but  the  benefits  are  largely  in  the 
majority. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  XIV. 


FRUIT  AND  BRANCH— PRIMAL  TYPE. 
(Citrus  Limonum  Vulgar  is.) 


THE  LEMON  INDUSTRY. 


THE    LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA.  161 

THE   LEMON. 

Citrus  medico,  limonum,  Risso. 


SEEDLINGS. — Ilypocotyl  becoming  woody,  erect,  terete,  finely  pubescent, 
wiry,  pale  green,  2.3-2.9  cm.  long. 

Cotyledons  two,  rarely  three,  mostly  alternate,  fleshy,  oblong,  obtuse,  pale 
green,  finely  pubescent,  sessile  or  subsessile,  somewhat  notched  at  the  base. 

Stem  woody,  erect,  terete,  finely  pubescent,  wiry ;  first  internode  variable, 
1.6 -2.3  cm.  long:  second,  2  mm. ;  third,  3  mm. ;  fourth,  7.5  mm. 

Leaves  compound,  cauline,  alternate,  exstipulate,  petiolate,  glabrous,  deep 
green,  shining,  pubescent  on  the  nerves  beneath  when  young,  permeated 
with  translucent  glands,  doubly  crenulate,  emarginate;  petioles  subpubescent, 
winged  with  a  prominent  midrib,  and  tapering  toward  the  base. 

Nos.  1  and  2  unifoliate,  frequently  also  Nos.  3  and  4.  All  alternate  at 
greater  or  less  distances  from  each  other,  or  in  pairs,  or  all  four  verticillate, 
ovate,  obtuse,  emarginate,  articulated  at  the  top  of  their  petioles,  or  the 
lowest  pair  articulate  at  the  base  only. 

Nos.  3  and  4  frequently  digitately  trifoliate,  the  terminal  leaflet  being 
lanceolate-elliptic,  attenuate  at  the  base ;  the  lateral  leaflets  arise  by  segmen- 
tation from  the  terminal  one. 

No.  4.  In  some  instances  five-foliolate ;  the  rachis  between  the  basal  and 
next  pair  of  leaflets  winged  and  tapering  toward  the  base  in  the  same  way  as 
the  primary  petiole ;  leaflets  sessile,  lanceolate-elliptic,  emarginate,  minutely 
and  doubly  crenulate,  smaller  than  the.  leaflets  of  unfoliate  leaves.— SIB 
JOHN  LUBBOCK,  "  Contribution  to  our  Knowledge  of  Seedlings,"  Vol.  I,  1892. 

The  flower  of  the  lemon  is  of  medium  size,  with  a  reddish 
tint  outside,  but  white  within.  Fruit  pale 'yellow,  generally 
oval,  ending  in  a  nipple-like  point,  seldom  round  or  pyriform. 
The  skin  is  smooth,  about  the  thickness  of  that  of  the  orange, 
becoming  greatly  reduced,  thin,  pliable,  and  leathery  to  the 
touch  after  being  stored  away,  styled  "curing." 

The  lemon  is  not  so  hardy  a  tree  as  the  orange  and  is  more 
susceptible  to  frost.  While  this  is  true  it  is  also  true  that 
it  does  not  require  so  high  a  temperature  to  bring  out  its 
best  qualities,  which  it  will  attain  on  the  coast,  where  the 
orange  is  inferior.  The  lemon  is  a  prolific  tree,  bearing  more 
fruit  than  the  orange  and  requiring  more  water,  but  the 
treatment  of  the  tree  in  the  matter  of  planting,  cultivating, 
etc.,  except  pruning,  is  the  same  as  that  required  by  the 
orange,  and  the  rules  laid  down  for  the  latter  apply  equally 
to  the  former, 
lie 


162  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

The  lemon  has  received  less  attention  in  California  than  the 
orange,  owing  partly  to  the  extra  care  required  in  its  prepara- 
tion for  market,  and  partly  to  the  impression  that  it  was  not 
so  profitable  a  fruit  to  grow.  Of  late  years,  however,  much 
more  attention  has  been  given  to  lemon  culture,  and  the  area 
adapted  to  lemon  growth  has  been  widened.  It  was  thought 
that  this  fruit  would  flourish  only  in  a  few  favored  nooks  in 
the  citrus  section,  but  experience  has  proved  that  there  are 
numerous  places  in  the  higher  lands — the  foothills  and  mesas— 
of  the  southern  and  central  counties  where  the  lemon  will 
flourish.  The  result  of  this  has  been  a  great  impetus  in  lemon 
planting  in  San  Diego,  Orange,  Riverside,  San  Bernardino, 
Los  Angeles,  Ventura,  Santa  Barbara,  and  Tulare  counties. 
This  has  been  aided,  too,  by  the  fear  that  the  very  extensive 
planting  of  oranges  would  result  in  the  reducing  of  profits  in 
orange-growing.  Improved  methods  of  handling  and  curing 
the  lemon — the  outcome  of  years  of  experiments — have  resulted 
in  securing  a  fruit  which  commands  a  good  price  and  competes 
with  the  imported  article,  making  lemon-growing  profitable. 
These  facts  have  turned  the  attention  of  planters  toward  the 
lemon,  and  it  is  probable  that  this  fruit  will  steadily  advance 
in  popularity  until  it  reaches  a  place  in  our  fruit  exportations 
beside  that  of  the  orange. 

VARIETIES. 

The  varieties  of  the  lemon  are  not  as  numerous  as  those  of 
the  orange.  While  many  varieties  have  been  introduced,  some 
of  our  choicest  have  originated  here.  The  common  seedling,  of 
poor  shipping  and  keeping  qualities,  that  used  to  be  met  with 
in  almost  every  orchard  in  the  State,  has  been  discarded,  and  in 
its  place  stand  varieties  which  possess  exceedingly  high  merit. 
The  fruit  of  the  varieties  now  grown  is  not  over-large,  but  of  a 
uniform  medium  size,  good  keepers,  with  a  sweet  rind  and  a 
delicious  strong  acid. 

LISBON. — Fruit  of  medium  size,  fine  grain,  sweet  rind,  acid 
strong,  few  seeds,  an  excellent  keeper.  Grows  very  uniform 
on  the  tree,  and  ripens  evenly.  The  tree  is  a  strong  grower, 
very  prolific,  thorny,  but  thorns  decrease  as  the  trees  grow 
older.  Imported  from  Portugal. 


THE    LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 


163 


Dr.  J.  H.  Needham,  in  an  essay  before  Pomological  Society, 
at  Covina,  in  1898,  says:  "The  advantages  claimed  for  the 
Lisbon  are  that  it  bears  its  fruit  uniformly  all  through  the 
tree.  But  the  disadvantage  is  that  the  tree  is  thickly  stud- 
ded with  long,  sharp  thorns,  which,  when  the  branches  are 
waved  by  the  winds,  puncture  much  of  the  fruit,  spoiling  it 
for  the  market,  especially  the  Eastern  market.  Another  objec- 
tion is  that  it  does  not  come  into  bearing  until  it  is  from  seven 
to  ten  years  in  orchard,  and  bears  only  one  crop  a  year." 

VILLA  FRANCA. — Fruit  oblong,  slightly  pointed  at  the  blos- 
som end,  rind  thin,  without  any  trace  of  bitterness,  acid  strong, 


Cross-sections  of  Villa  Franca  Lemon  (cured  specimens)— natural  size. 

juicy,  nearly  seedless.  Tree  almost  thornless,  branches  spread- 
ing, and  somewhat  drooping,  foliage  very  abundant,  which  pro- 
tects the  fruit  from  scorching.  The  tree  is  a  strong  grower  and 
less  susceptible  to  cold  than  most  varieties.  Imported  from 
Europe. 

Dr.  J.  H.  Needham,  in  an  essay  before  Pomological  Society, 
at  Covina,  in  1898,  says:  "The  advantages  claimed  for  the 
Villa  Franca  are  that  it  makes  a  more  compact  tree  and  bears 
its  fruit  more  uniformly  over  the  entire  tree;  but,  from  my 
experience,  it  requires  at  least  one  year  longer  to  come  into 
bearing,  and  the  fruits  on  young  trees  are  shorter  when  they 
have  the  requisite  diameter  for  picking  than  either  the  Eureka 
or  Lisbon." 


164  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

ACME  (syn.,  "Sweet  Rind/'  "  Kale's  Seedling  ").— This  is  an 
old  established  variety;  originated  at  Los  Angeles.  Resembles 
the  Lisbon  in  many  of  its  characteristics,  so  much  so  that  it 
has  been  confounded  with  it.  The  fruit  is  similar  to  the  Lisbon, 
grows  uniformly,  of  medium  size,  strong  acid,  with  a  sweet 
rind;  a  good  keeper.  The  tree  is  a  more  upright  grower  than 
the  Lisbon,  has  fewer  thorns,  and  is  of  a  much  less  spreading 
habit. 

EUREKA. — Fruit  medium  size,  sweet,  smooth,  glossy  rind, 
and  an  excellent  keeper.  Acid  strong  and  most  pleasant,  with 
very  few  seeds.  Tree  semi-dwarf,  sparse  foliage,  inclined  to 
bear  at  the  extremities  of  the  branches,  and  endangering  the 
fruit  to  sunburn.  A  remarkable  lemon.  Originated  at  Los 
Angeles. 

Dr.  J.  H.  Needham,  in  an  essay  before  Pomological  Society, 
at  Covina,  in  1898,  says:  "The  advantages  of  the  Eureka  are 
its  comparative  freedom  from  thorns,  its  tendency  to  early 
bearing,  and,  when  properly  trained,  to  enormous  crops  when 
it  comes  into  full  bearing,  by  its  continuous  blooming  and 
setting  of  lemons  all  the  year,  especially  in  sections  that  are 
comparatively  free  from  frost.  The  objections  are  its  tendency 
to  set  its  fruit  on  the  tips  of  the  branches,  and  the  inclination 
to  grow  long  canes  with  but  few  laterals,  and  to  drop  its  leaves 
on  the  long  canes  or  branches,  thus  leaving  the  limbs  and 
fruit  too  much  exposed  to  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun  in  the  heated 
term  of  summer.  But  this  can  be  remedied  by  proper  pruning 
from  the  time  the  tree  is  one  or  not  more  than  two  years  in 
the  orchard,  being  careful  to  keep  off  all  sucker  growth,  and 
cutting  back  the  long ,  branches  to  not  more  than  twelve  to 
eighteen  inches,  in  the  spring  and  fall;  June  and  October  being 
a  fair  division  of  the  growth  of  the  year.  Always  cut  away 
the  larger  of  the  two  or  three  branches  that  have  started  near 
where  the  branch  was  pruned  the  previous  time,  as  the  bold 
rapid  growers  will  only  make  a  wood  growth,  while  the  smaller 
twigs  or  branches  will  form  the  fruit  spurs,  which  bud,  bloom, 
and  bear  the  fruit." 

GENOA. — Fruit  medium  size,  oval,  sweet  rind,  and  nearly 
seedless;  a  good  keeper.  Tree  of  a  dwarf  habit  and  thornless. 
This  is  one  of  the  best  lemons  grown  in  the  State. 

ASIATIC. — Fruit  medium  size,  oval,  thin  rind,  with  an  agree- 
able strong  acid.  Tree  semi-dwarf,  thornless. 


THE    LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES.  165 

BONNIE  BRAE. — A  vigorous  growing  tree,  quite  thorny,  and 
with  distinct  foliage.  The  fruit,  which  resembles  a  lime  in 
appearance,  is  of  a  medium  size,  ribbed,  and  with  exceedingly 
thin  rind. 

SICILY. — Fruit  large  and  coarse;  keeps  only  with  extreme 
care;  inferior. 

AGNES. — Fruit  medium  size,  sweet  rind,  pulp  very  fine,  with 
strong  acid,  and  few  seeds.  Thorns  few,  short  and  blunt.  Tree 
a  rapid  grower,  medium  dwarf,  and  drooping  in  character. 

OLIVIA. — Fruit  medium  size,  of  good  quality,  acid  strong. 
Tree  a  thrifty  grower  and  a  good  bearer;  thorny. 

"  ROYAL  MESSINA." — Introduced  from  Florida,  under  the 
name  of  Sicily,  but  there  being  numerous  varieties  under  this 
name, "  Royal  Messina  "  was  applied  to  it,  identifying  the  same 
with  one  grown  in  Florida  by  that  name.  It  is  a  choice 
lemon  of  medium  size,  seedless,  strong  acid,  skin  thin,  pliable, 
and  an  excellent  keeper.  Tree  nearly  free  from  thorns,  strong 
in  growth,  and  of  dark,  elegant  foliage. 

GARCELON'S  KNOBBY. — Fruit  medium  size,  when  cured  very 
thin  rind,  juicy.  Tree  a  good  grower  and  prolific. 

BOUTON. — Fruit  medium  size,  sweet  rind  when  cured,  very 
seedy.  Tree  very  thorny;  inferior. 

SWEET  RIND. — Fruit  very  large;  tree  very  thorny;  inferior. 

MILAN.* — Fruit  medium  size;  an  exceptionally  fine  lemon. 

CALIFORNIA  SICILY.— Name  applied  to  common  seedling 
lemons. 

CHINESE. — Fruit  large,  the  size  of  a  citron,  which  it  resembles. 
Fruit  of  little  commercial  value,  except  the  peel,  which  is  used 
for  preserving  purposes.  Tree  is  of  a  dwarf  habit — a  bush.  In 
former  years  it  was  extensively  used  as  a  stock,  but  being 
subject  to  the  gum  disease  and  unable  to  support  the  growth  of 
the  orange  and  lemon,  it  has  been  discarded. 
•  EVER- BEARING.* — Fruit  large  and  coarse.  Decreases  in  size 
as  the  tree  grows  older. 

SICILIAN.* — A  lemon  of  superior  quality. 

LAMB.* — Fruit  medium;  strong  acid. 

BIJOU.* — Fruit  medium,  and  a  good  keeper. 

VARIEGATED.— The  leaves  are  mottled  with  white;  ornamental. 

NAPOLEON. — Fruit  medium  size,  thin  rind,  oblong.  A  pro- 
lific bearer. 

^Florida  varieties ;  some  have  been  introduced  into  California. 


166  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

AUGUST.* — Fruit  medium  size,  elongated,  a  good  shipper. 
Tree  a  rapid  grower. 

BELAIR  PREMIUM.* — Fruit  medium  size,  without  bitterness. 
Tree  a  strong  grower  and  thrifty.  Considered  the  best  variety 
grown  in  Florida. 

FRENCH  SEEDLING.* — Fruit  quite  small,  sweet  rind,  and  a 
strong  acid.  Tree  a  strong  grower,  almost  thornless. 

FRENCH,  OR  FLORIDA.* — Rough;  used  as  a  stock. 

FRENCH  SEEDLING.* — Said  to  be  very  good. 

OTHER  VARIETIES— 

Valentina*  Genoese  Castilian  Bracy* 

Leghorn*  Garden  Lemon        Royal  Imperial* 

Neapolitan*                 (inferior)  Candian  Long* 

Makay*  Mela  Rosa  '           Ohio  Naples* 

Meranda*  Paradise  Praos  Sweet  Brazilian* 

Malta*  Communis  Messina*  Tuberculata* 

Waring's  Seed-  Suacco  Roman  Waring's  Seedless* 

ling*  Melaroce  St.  Jerome 

The  Sweet,  or  Bergamot,  Lemon. 

Citrus  limonum,  var.  Dulcis,  Risso. 

This  species  of  the  citrus  family  has  been  grown  in  a  small 
way  in  dooryards  and  gardens  by  early  settlers,  and  must  have 
had  its  origin,  or  was  introduced,  at  a  very  early  period.  It 
has  never  assumed  much  importance  in  the  markets,  and  for 
this  reason  has  only  been  grown  to  a  very  limited  extent.  The 
flowers  are  pure  white,  slightly  tinged  with  purple  on  the  out- 
side and  white  within.  The  leaves  are  large,  ovate  roundish, 
serrated;  petioles  subulate,  very  smooth  and  aromatic.  The 
fruit  resembles  the  lemon  in  appearance,  but  globose,  with  a 
blunt,  nipple-like  protuberance  at  the  blossom  end,  a  firm  rind, 
sweet  pulp,  and  a  non-aromatic  juice. 

The  tree  is  a  prolific  bearer,  is  easily  grown  from  cuttings, 
and  is  also  worked  on  orange  stocks  or  vice  versa.  The  tree 
requires  the  same  treatment  and  conditions  for  its  growth  as 
the  lemon,  and  on  its  own  root  is  very  much  subject  to  the 
attacks  of  gum  disease.  There  are  various  types  grown,  and 
while  some  possess  marked  qualities,  perhaps  owing  to  the 
climatic  conditions,  soil,  etc.,  none  have  been  so  far  classed  as 
distinctive  varieties. 


^Florida  varieties ;  some  have  been  introduced  into  California. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  XV. 


LISBON— Natural  size. 


LISBON— Cross-sections— Natural  size. 


VILLA  FRANCA— Slightly  reduced. 


THE  LEMON  INDUSTRY— VARIETIES. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  XVI. 


BONNIE  BRAE— Natural  size. 


\ 


BONNIE  BRAE— Cross-section— Natural  size. 
(Cured  specimen.) 


BONNIE  BRAE— Cross-section,  showing  seed 
variation  and  thickness  of  rind.  ( U  n cured  ) 


THE  LEMON  INDUSTRY— VARIETIES. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  XVII. 


EUREKA— Cross-sections— Natural  size 


THE  LEMON  INDUSTRY— VARIETIES. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  XVIII. 


**% 


•• 


GENOA— Cross-sections— Natural  size. 


"ROYAL  MESSINA"— Natural  size. 


"  ROYAL  MESSINA"— Cross-sections— Natural  size. 
THE  LEMON  INDUSTRY— VARIETIES. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  XIX. 


MILAN— Natural  size. 


MILAN— Cross-sections— Natural  size. 


SICILY— Cured  specimen— Natural  size. 


172 


STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


PRUNING  THE  LEMON. 

"  How  shall  we  prune,  and  when  shall  we  do  it  ?"  I.  C.  Wood, 
of  Ontario,  Cal.,  an  experienced  lemon-grower,  answered  the 
question  before  the  Southern  California  Pomological  Society,  as 
follows: 

u  If  the  tree  is  one  year  old,  I  would  cut  it  to  about  three 
and  one  half  feet  high;  if  older,  possibly  higher,  according  to 
strength  of  plant.  Then  let  it  branch  from  near  the  ground, 
say  one  to  one  and  a  half  feet.  As  soon  as  the  young  shoots 
are  strong  enough,  select  from  four  to  six  or  more  of  the  best 
of  them ;  see  that  they  are  evenly  distributed  on  every  side  of 


Lemon  orchard  pruned  high,  without  cutting  back  the  upper  shoots,  which 
continually  break  by  the  weight  of  the  fruit. 

the  stem  and  at  different  heights  from  the  ground;  allow  the 
uppermost  to  form  the  leader,  which  should  be  encouraged 
from  year  to  year  to  continue  as  a  leader,  so  as  to  avoid  as  far 
as  possible  decided  forks. 

"At  end  of  first  year  prune  in  all  side  shoots  and  top 
according  to  the  amount  of  wood  made — usually  one  half  will 
be  about  right  for  the  lower  branches,  and  more  severe  for  the 
upper  ones.  The  object  is  to  shape  the  tree  and  keep  it  in  the 
form  of  a  letter  "  A,"  limbed  right  from  the  ground  or  nearly 
so.  In  pruning,  do  not  cut  at  random,  especially  at  this 
stage,  but  see  which  way  you  want  the  upper  buds  to  grow,  as 
the  upper  bud  usually  makes  the  leader  which  we  want  to 


THE    LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — PRUNING.  173 

encourage  to  go  upward  and  not  outward,  as  we  are  laying  a 
foundation  for  a  heavy  crop  of  fruit  and  we  want  to  keep  that 
crop  protected  as  much  as  possible  by  a  mass  of  foliage,  and 
equally  distributed  through  the  tree  and  close  to  the  stronger 
or  main  branches.  The  object  is  to  make  the  tree  carry  a  full 
crop,  and  that,  too,  without  props  or  ropes,  which  are  expensive, 
take  time  and  labor  to  put  in  place,  besides  being  unsightly 
and  in  the  way.  Moreover,  the  tree  will  be  so  compact  in  its 
make-up  that  should  we  be  located  where  subject  to  winds,  the 
resisting  power  of  the  tree  will  be  much  greater  and  losses  of 
fruit  and  breakage  of  branches  very  much  lessened.  The  crop 
of  fruit  will  be  found  very  largely  on  the  inside  of  the  tree, 
insuring  less  sunburn  or  that  unpleasant  deep  yellow  color 
on  the  side  exposed,  as  is  so  general  when  the  crop  is  allowed 
to  bear  on  the  outside  and  at  the  extremities  of  the  branches. 
"In  this  section  (Ontario)  there  is  a  half-dormant  season 
during  the  months  of  February,  March,  and  a  part  of  April, 
which  I  would  consider  the  proper  time  for  making  our  heavy 
cutting.  If  it  becomes  necessary  at  any  time,  which  may  be 
the  case  with  young  and  thrifty  trees  not  yet  in  bearing,  I  have 
before  recommended  pruning  the  lighter  wood  at  the  time  of 
picking  the  fruit,  and  experience  has  taught  me  that  there  is  no 
time  when  we  can  do  pruning  so  effectually.  When  this  method 
is  followed  up  we  invariably  find  a  large  amount  of  the  fruit  on 
the  inside  of  the  tree,  and  on  small,  willow-like  branches. 
When  the  stronger  growth  has  been  kept  in  check,  these  smaller 
branches  are  encouraged  and  live  on,  because  they  receive  a 
fair  proportion  of  the  tree  sap,  which  would  otherwise  go  to  the 
stronger  parts,  and  if  allowed,  the  smaller  shoots,  especially  on 
the  inside,  would  die,  and  the  inside  of  the  tree  would  become 
a  scraggy  mass  of  small  dry  branches." 

*"The  idea  of  growing  as  large  a  tree  as  possible  in  three  or 
four  years,  or  until  bearing  age,  must  be  reversed;  must  be  done 
by  cutting  back  the  tree  when  one  year  old  and  keeping  it  cut 
back  and  thinned  out  until  the  growth  is  controlled.  The 
wood  must  never  be  cut  on  its  first  growth;  let  it  become  hard, 
not  less  than  two  growths  old.  The  older  the  wood  the  more 
inclined  to  small  fruit  growth  when  cut  back.  The  length  to 
leave  depends  altogether  on  size  of  wood  and  location  of 

*  J.  W.  Scott,  in  Covina  Argus,  October,  1895. 


174  STATE  BOARD  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

branches;  but  seldom  leave  more  than  eight  inches,  and  often 
only  one  or  two  buds.  The  one  great  mistake  made  by  some 
in  cutting  back  heavily  is  to  shear  off  the  crown  of  the  tree 
year  after  year,  causing  it  to  grow  thicker  and  thicker  each 
year,  sacrificing  all  of  the  lateral  fruit  growth  and  the  fruit 
growth  inside  the  tree. 

"  In  cutting  trees  three  years  old  and  upward,  one  must 
understand  the  nature  of  the  tree  especially,  or  he  will  leave 
too  much  foundation  for  new  growth.  After  the  new  wood  is 
dormant  it  should  be  thinned  out,  leaving  plenty  of  lateral  and 
inside  growth,  but  taking  out  everything  from  the  top  that  has 
a  tendency  to  shoot  upward,  especially  large  wood.  The  idea 
is  to  keep  the  top  down  and  work  for  a  lateral  growth,  always 
keeping  out  suckers  and  large  young  wood.  Above  all  do  not 
try  to  form  any  more  branches  by  utilizing  a  sucker  to  fill  in  a 
vacancy;  better  let  time  fill  it  up  with  the  old  wood,  or  grub  up 
the  tree  and  put  in  a  new  one. 

"  During  pruning,  use  very  little  water,  if  any,  until  the  first 
growth  is  dormant.  I  believe  there  is  a  great  mistake  made 
in  watering  lemon  trees  at  just  the  wrong  time.  Until  they 
are  in  full  bearing  they  do  not  require  much  water.  I  think 
the  majority  of  growers  will  agree  with  me  that  the  time  to 
water  the  lemon  tree  is  when  dormant,  then  a  good,  healthy 
stock  of  wood  is  secured,  but  it  requires  more  labor  keeping  out 
suckers.  I  think  the  time  will  come  when  lemon-growers  in 
irrigation  districts  will  build  their  own  private  reservoirs  that 
they  may  be  able  to  use  the  water  when  needed.  I  have  made 
the  assertion  that  a  lemon  tree  needs  more  water  than  the 
orange,  and  it  is  very  evident,  for  the  reason  that  when  a  lemon 
tree  comes  into  bearing  it  is  capable  of  producing  at  the  same 
age  and  with  the  same  care,  two  or  three  times  as  much  fruit 
as  the  orange,  and  is  setting  fruit  all  through  the  year." 

G.  W.  Garcelon,  a  pioneer  lemon-grower  of  Riverside,  says: 
"After  the  tree  is  set  let  it  grow.  As  soon  as  suckers  appear, 
remove  them,  although  some  growers  leave  them  for  a  time  to 
protect  the  trunk  of  the  tree  from  the  sun.  Rather  burlap  the 
trunks  and  let  the  growth  come  from  the  top,  which  will  con- 
stitute two  thirds  of  the  tree.  Allow  all  top  growth  to  remain, 
except  shortening  in  any  too  luxuriant  branches,  or  winds  will 
prune  for  you,  and  more  than  is  desirable.  Now  this  is  all 


THE    LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — PRUNING.  175 

that  is  necessary,  except  annually  to  clean  out  any  wood  in 
the  tree  which  has  got  through  being  useful  to  the  tree,  always 
remembering  that  the  best  fruit  of  the  lemon  comes  from  the 
inside  of  the  tree  and  nearest  the  ground." 

The  lemon  tree  being  a  strong  and  vigorous  plant,  requires 
liberal  irrigation  and  above  all,  judicious  pruning,  for  almost 
before  a  person  is  aware  of  it,  long  straggling  branches  will 
hinder  cultivation,  and  must  be  cut  back,  thereby  entailing  an 
absolute  waste  and  greatly  lessening  the  vitality  of  the  tree. 
To  prevent  this  waste  and  loss,  the  ends  of  the  branches 
should  be  pinched  off  at  the  proper  time,  and  with  such  dis- 
cretion as  will  result  in  forming  a  symmetrical  and  well- 
balanced  top.  Great  care  should  also  be  taken  in  thinning 
out  the  small  and  weak  branches,  so  as  to  afford  circulation 
and  allow  sunshine  to  penetrate.  Pinching  off  the  ends  of  the 
limbs  will  cause  them  to  throw  out  spurs,  thereby  bringing  the 
fruit  nearer  the  body  of  the  tree. 

*"We  have  learned  from  observation  that  the  lemon  tree 
produces  its  best  fruit  on  twigs  or  small  branches  in  the  interior 
of  the  tree.  To  get  any  considerable  quantity  of  such  twigs  we 
must  cut  back  the  branches,  for  the  habit  of  the  tree  is  to  send 
out  long  shoots  that  fruit  on  the  end,  often  leaving  two  or  three 
feet  without  a  break.  The  fruit  that  grows  on  these  branches 
is  largely  culls.  If  the  branches  are  properly  cut  back,  the 
body  of  the  tree  will  probably  fill  up  with  fine  wood,  which 
will  furnish  bearing  surface  for  all  the  fruit  that  the  tree  can 
properly  mature. 

"Two  difficulties  have  confronted  us  as  growers:  one,  that 
much  of  our  fruit  does  not  attain  the  proper  size  before  we  are 
obliged  to  pick  it  in  order  to  prevent  its  deteriorating  in  quality; 
and  the  other,  that  our  crop  is  ready  to  gather  too  late  for  one 
market  and  too  early  for  another,  or  during  the  early  winter 
months.  The  former  of  these  difficulties  can  probably  be  largely 
overcome,  and  the  latter  by  somewhat  reducing  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  tree  and  bringing  the  fruit  nearer  to  the  source  of 
supply.  All  experiments  along  this  line  go  to  show  that  both 
the  grade  and  size  of  the  lemon  are  improved  by  the  process. 
Many  lemons,  from  being  too  small  or  too  highly  colored  before 
picking,  go  into  the  second  grade  or  culls  that  otherwise  should 

*J.  W.  Freeman,  in  "  Pacific  Rural  Press,"  April  25,  1897. 


176  STATE    BOARD    OP    HORTICULTURE. 

go  into  the  first  or  second  grade.  One  can  easily  see  that  it  pays 
better  to  grow  twelve  boxes  of  lemons  at  $1.25  per  box  than  to 
grow  fifteen  boxes  of  second  grade  at  $1,  or  any  number  of  culls 
for  nothing,  as  the  cost  per  box  is  the  same  in  each  case. 

"It  is  thought  by  some  that  by  certain  methods  of  pruning 
the  habits  of  the  lemon  tree  can  be  so  changed  that  from  bear- 
ing the  bulk  of  its  fruit  in  the  fall  and  early  winter  it  may  be 
made  to  bear  in  the  summer.  It  would  seem  that  in  certain 
localities  that  is  the  habit  of  the  tree,  but  we  speak  of  this  as 
we  know  it;  that  to  our  minds  is  unquestionable.  The  possi- 
bility of  it  lies,  of  course,  in  the  fact  that  the  tree  is  a  continu- 
ous bearer;  but  supposing  that  it  could  be  done,  the  thing  of 
itself  is  of  doubtful  benefit,  especially  in  the  localities  subject 
to  injury  by  frost.  The  so-called  summer  crop  is  on  the  trees 
during  the  winter  months,  and  if  it  passes  through  safely,  is 
just  the  thing  to  be  desired.  Until  we  can  devise  some  method 
of  protection  (from  the  elements,  we  mean),  it  would  seem 
that  the  wisest  course  will  be  to  do  what  we  can  to  hasten  the 
time  of  maturity  of  our  fall  crop  to  catch  as  much  of  the  early 
market  as  possible,  and  to  hold  the  balance  of  our  crop  over 
until  spring,  if  necessary.  This  fruit  is  of  much  better  keeping 
quality  than  the  summer  crop. 

"If  this  method  is  adopted  it  will  be  much  better  to  begin 
with  the  trees  when  they  are  young,  but  with  old  trees  the 
sooner  the  better.  Some  have  the  practice  of  rounding  up  their 
trees  like  a  billiard  ball,  irrespective  of  what  may  be  the 
length  of  the  limbs  in  the  body  of  the  tree.  This  seems  to  us 
to  be  a  mistake,  as  it  will  leave  the  tree  with  too  dense  a  growth 
of  foliage.  Others  cut  them  off  like  a  billiard  table.  This  is 
open  to  the  same  objection,  besides  taking  from  the  tree  much 
wood  that  is  already  in  the  place  desired.  Each  limb  should 
be  treated  by  itself  and  cut  back  to  within  six  or  eight  inches 
of  the  fork;  when  limbs  spring  from  this,  instead  of  cutting 
each  one  off  at  the  same  distance,  they  should  be  thinned  out 
to  two  or  three,  cutting  the  surplus  shoots  right  back  to  the 
branch.  It  may  be  necessary  to  reduce  the  surface  still  further 
each  year  by  cutting  out  a  portion  of  the  bearing  wood,  so  that 
each  limb  shall  not  carry  more  fruit  than  it  can  mature.  We 
can  show  trees  treated  in  this  way  that  are  now  one  mass 
of  bloom  right  through  the  whole  body  of  the  tree,  so  that  one 
could  scarcely  put  his  hand  in  without  touching  a  blossom. 


THE    LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 


177 


This   may  in   time   need   thinning   out,  but   that  is  an  easy 
matter. 

"This  may  seem  like  heroic  work,  and  many  dislike  to 
undertake  it,  though  they  may  be  convinced  that  it  will  pay 
in  the  end.  It  does  not  mean  the  total  loss  of  a  year's  crop  by 
any  means.  The  yield  will  not  be  so  large,  it  is  true,  but  the 
actual  returns  may  not  be  far  behind.  Let  me  call  your  atten- 
tion to  the  saving  that  will  be  effected  in  the  cost  of  picking. 
To  go  into  the  top  of  a  large  tree  five  or  six  times  a  year  for  a 
half  box  of  lemons  is  an  expensive  business  and  runs  the  cost 
of  picking  up  to  almost  more  than  the  actual  value  of  the  fruit. 
By  this  method  of 
pruning,  the  fruit 
will  be  kept  within 
easy  reach. 

"To  get  the  best 
results  from  this 
system  of  pruning 
the  work  must  be 
followed  up  and  all 
useless  growth  re- 
moved while  the 
process  will  shock 
neither  the  feelings 
of  the  grower  nor 
the  sensibilities  of 
the  tree. 

"Let  me  say  here 
that  the  grove  that 


A  low-pruned  tree  headed  back,  and  supporting  a  large 
,   quantity  of  lemons. 


yielded  the  largest  returns  in  this  section  seems  to  me  to  have 
been  pruned  nearly  in  line  with  these  suggestions.  By  a  com- 
mon-sense method  of  pruning,  lemon  trees  are  gotten  into  such 
shape  that  the  wind  causes  less  damage  to  fruit  and  tree,  and 
the  branches  are  not  broken  if  overburdened  with  fruit.  Props 
and  twenty-foot  ladders  are  rendered  unnecessary,  the  cost  of 
picking  is  reduced  from  one  third  to  one  half,  the  quality  of 
the  fruit  is  materially  improved,  the  returns  are  largely  aug- 
mented, and  the  grower  made  correspondingly  happy." 


12c 


178  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

*"Head  the  tree  about  two  and  a  half  feet  from  the  ground; 
keep  it  shortened  in  for  three  or  four  years,  forcing  a  thick, 
stocky  basis  for  after-growth.  The  tree  by  this  time  is  bear- 
ing freely,  and  the  fruit  will  pull  or  bend  down  the  long  shoots, 
which  will  then  put  up  or  throw  out  small  fruit-bearing  timber 
all  along  the  upper  side  of  the  drooping  limb.  I  think  this 
preferable  to  a  continuous  shortening  of  all  long  growth.  A 
dense,  shady  tree  is  what  is  wanted,  since  the  denser  the  shade 
the  more  symmetrical  and  smooth  the  fruit  will  be.  Limbs 
that  reach  to  and  lie  upon  the  ground  may  from  time  to  time, 
as  needed,  be  tipped  oft'/' 

THE  BARONIO  METHOD  OF  PRUNING  THE  LEMON. 

The  so-called  "  Baronio  Method  "  of  pruning  the  lemon  takes 
its  name  from  A.  C.  Baronio,  an  Italian  gentleman  who 
recently  introduced  it  into  some  orchards  at  La  Mesa,  San 
Diego  County,  and  who  is  now  a  resident  of  that  locality. 
While  this  method  of  pruning  is  not  new,  it  is  practically  new 
as  applied  to  the  lemon  in  this  State.  Gallesio,  in  his  treatise 
on  the  citrus  family,  written  nearly  a  century  ago,  mentions 
"the  lemon  of  Genoa  as  a  vigorous  tree  which  will  also  extend 
itself  en  espalier  (on  a  trellis)  and  bear  an  abundance  of  fruit." 
He  also  mentions  other  varieties  "  that  will  not  submit  to  be 
trained  en  espalier."  This  system  partakes  of  the  principles  laid 
down  by  Du  Breuil,  Barry,  and  Downing  in  the  Espalier  and 
Cordon  systems  of  pruning  long  in  vogue,  but  applied  to  decid- 
uous trees.  Mr.  Baronio  claims  that  the  present  method  as 
practiced  by  him  on  the  lemon  is  the  outcome  of  a  series  of 
years  of  personal  tests  and  practical  experience  as  a  matter  of 
study,  which  led  him  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  preeminently 
suited  to  the  lemon,  especially  in  various  sections  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  State.  Whether  this  method  and  others  that 
have  come  into  general  use  of  late,  will  ever  be  pronounced 
eminently  successful  time  can  only  determine.  Suffice  it  to 
say,  however,  that  they  are  much  believed  in  and  are  applied 
in  many  orchards.  The  method  is  described  as  follows  by 
A.  C.  Baronio: 

The  method  of  pruning  the  lemon  as  practiced  by  me, 
although  having  been  mistaken  for  the  old  vase,  or  the  "  tronco 

*Dr.  W.  B.  Wall,  an  extensive  lemon-grower  of  Tustin,  before  Southern 
California  Pomological  Society,  June,  1896. 


THE   LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 


179 


rovesciato"  form  of  the  Italians,  is  entirely  different,  because 
it  brings  the  tree  under  such  a  control  as  is  not  to  be  obtained 
by  any  other  method.  It  really  aims  at  producing  a  very  low, 
wide  open  standard  tree,  possessing  all  the  merits  of  an 
espalier  with  none  of  its  drawbacks. 

When  once  the  tree  has  been  brought  under  subjection,  every 
part  of  it  is  kept  within  easy  reach  of  an  ordinary  man  stand- 
ing on  the  ground,  the  structure  strong  enough  to  carry  a  great 
weight  of  fruit  and  capable  of  standing  undisturbed  by  wind 
and  weather.  The  fruit  is  of  superior  quality,  free  from  culls, 
the  succession  of  crops  regulated,  and  the  fruit-bearing  surface 


Lemon  orchard  of  T.  F.  Jones,  at  La  Mesa,  cut  back  by  Mr.  Baronio  in  July,  1898. 
Photo  taken  October  30, 1899. 

can  be  enlarged  and  directed  at  will  as  the  tree  acquires  age 
and  strength,  so  that  it  is  a  question  of  laying  the  foundation 
for  a  permanent  structure,  which  may  be  enlarged  for  an  indefi- 
nite time.  Of  course  it  necessitates  an  entire  reconstruction 
(unless  so  raised  from  the  beginning)  in  order  to  lay  the  foun- 
dation for  such  a  lasting  and  progressively  profitable  tree,  which 
cannot  be  done  by  a  single  operation.  I  have  emphatically 
warned  those  who  may  be  enticed  by  some  of  the  half-and-half 
attempts  which  have  sprung  up  since  as  new  systems  and  which 
find  favor  in  some  quarters  as  a  happy  compromise  on  what 
would  seem  to  be  too  radical  a  reform.  But  these  are  merely 
makeshifts  or  bad  imitations  likely  to  lead  to  temporary 
encouragement  and  ultimate  disappointment,  through  lack  of 
knowledge  and  experience  in  the  proper  application  of  vital 


180  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

principles.  Instead  of  the  pruner  being  able  to  control  the 
tree,  it  will  be  found  that  the  tree  is  master  of  the  situation, 
growing  its  own  way  without  proper  foundation.  The  lemon 
tree  is  either  a  most  tractable  or  the  most  obstinate  of  servants, 
but  the  choice  rests  with  the  intelligence  of  its  master.  The 
great  object  in  view  is  to  grow  lemons  for  "profit,"  which  must 
be  progressive  as  the  age  and  strength  of  the  tree  advance, 
always  with  due  regard  to  its  future  life  and  well-being.  The 
method  is  based  on  well-formulated  physiological  principles,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  most  important: 

(a)  A  tree  is  most  profitable  when  the  flow  of  sap  is  evenly 
distributed  over  all  its  surface,  each  branch  maintained  prop- 
erly covered  with  elaborated  growth  all  along  from  its  base 
extending  outward  in  methodical  form;  and  when  it  is  held 
under  absolute  control  so  that  the  root  shall  always  be  capable 
of  feeding  the  whole  top,  which  is  kept  within  easy  reach  from 
the  ground. 

(6)  The  sap  circulates  faster  through  a  shoot  running 
straight  up  in  the  air  than  through  a  branch  going  out  in  a 
lateral  direction. 

(c)  There  is  little  or  no  elaboration  along  the  length  of  a 
straight  shoot  until  the  top  is  reached. 

(d)  There  is  a  larger  amount  of  elaboration  along  a  branch 
in  proportion  as  it  goes  out  in  a  lateral  direction. 

(e)  There  can  be  no  fruitfulness  without  elaboration;  there- 
fore, 

(/)  A  lateral  branch  is  more  fruitful  than  an  upright  one. 

(g)  If  a  young,  vigorous  shoot  (commonly  called  a  sucker) 
running  straight  up  is  allowed  to  persist  on  a  branch,  it  will 
draw  most  of  the  sap  and  tend  to  starve  the  other  growth  below. 

(h)  A  branch  may  be  built  slightly  crooked  and  strong  in 
short  sections  made  up  of  wood  of  different  ages,  and  so  pruned 
that  a  rush  of  sap  never  being  permitted  it  is  forced  to  elaborate 
a  lot  of  small  fruiting  growth  all  along  its  length. 

(i)  Fruitfulness  and  excellence  are  the  results  of  a  slow  but 
steady  circulation. 

(j)  An  over-accelerated  circulation  tends  to  foster  unneces- 
sarily vigorous  or  rank  wood  formation. 

(k)  A  tree  must  never  be  permitted  at  the  top  to  outgrow  its 
root  system,  but  allowed  only  sufficient  wood  formation  to  keep 


THE    LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — PRUNING.  181 

it  growing,  and  all  the  fruit  compatible  with  its  age  and 
strength. 

(I)  Branches  should  never  be  so  crowded  as  to  preclude  the 
free  admission  of  light  and  air  between  them. 

(m)  In  order  that  a  tree  might  have  the  sap  evenly  distrib- 
uted, its  main  branches  must  be  of  equal  size  and  run  out  at 
similar  angles. 

(n)  A  limb  which  branches  off  at  an  acute  angle  is  liable  to 
split  at  the  fork. 


Fig.  1— Baronio  method  of  pruning  the  lemon.    (From  a  sketch  by  G.  P.  Hall,  of 

San  Diego.) 

(o)  A  limb  which  branches  off  at  a  blunt  angle  is  not  liable 
to  split. 

(p)  A  limb  (like  a  chain)  is  no  stronger  than  its  weakest 
point,  and  therefore  there  must  be  no  weak  points  about  it. 

(q)  The  strongest  points  of  a  limb  must  commence  at  its 
base. 

(r)   Foundation  branches  can  never  be  built  too  strong. 

(s)  Limbs  seldom  break  down  by  mere  weight,  but  mostly 
by  vibration,  which  brings  all  the  strain  on  the  weakest  point 
at  the  fork. 


182 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


(t)  Main  branches  should  be  perfectly  stiff,  not  affected  by 
any  vibration  whatever. 

It  is  impossible,  in  a  short  article  like  this,  to  do  full  justice 
to  the  system  or  even  attempt  to  partly  explain  it  in  detail.  A 
few  hours  with  me  in  the  field  will  do  more  than  can  be 
attempted  here  on  paper,  especially  since  I  am  willing  and 
capable  of  explaining  everything  about  it.  The  method  is 


Fig.  2— Baronio  method  of  pruning  the  lemon.    ( From  a  sketch 
by  G.  P.  Hall,  of  San  Diego.) 

shown  in  the  accompanying  illustrations,  made  from  sketches 
and  photographs  taken  on  the  spot. 

Figs.  1,  2,  and  3  represent  three  rather  extreme  cases  of 
straggling  Eurekas  taken  immediately  after  the  first  operation. 
With  the  center  leader,  which  probably  carried  a  top  to  the 
height  of  about  ten  feet,  cut  out  so  that  little  if  anything  is  left, 
any  one  with  a  timid  heart  who  did  not  know  any  better  would 
certainly  think  it  impossible  to  get  anything  like  a  tree  back 
again,  but  it  is  astonishing  how  quickly  an  entirely  new  and 


THE    LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA— PRUNING.  183 

better  structure  is  brought  into  existence.  First  of  all,  by  the 
removal  of  the  great  leverage  which  the  high  top  exercised  on 
the  root,  this  at  once  gets  a  chance  to  obtain  a  firmer  hold  of 
the  ground;  the  tree -puts  forth  a  new  effort,  and  by  a  much 
more  vigorous  growth  and  healthier  foliage,  which  act  as  new 
lungs  to  it,  a  correspondingly  increased  activity  goes  on  under 
ground,  forcing  the  formation  of  fresh  rootlets,  the  trunk  begins 
to  thicken  in  proportion,  and  so  an  altogether  more  satisfactory 
condition  of  things  is  established.  The  great  necessity  for  a 
good  and  strong  constitution  is  a  proportionately  large  stem 
from  the  base  up,  since  a  tree,  like  a  man,  of  a  strong  consti- 
tution can  stand  more  than  a  cripple.  Now,  fixing  our  attention 


£ 


Fig.  3— Barouio  method  of  pruning  the  lemon.    (From  a  sketch  by  G.  P.  Hall, 
of  San  Diego.) 

on  Fig.  1,  according  to  my  plan  the  tree  is  branched  too  high,  for  I 
consider  sixteen  inches  the  best  height,  and  if  more  it  should  not 
exceed  two  feet;  it  will  therefore  be  noticed  that  on  the  stem  about 
a  foot  below  the  first  branch  two  suckers  are  already  started,  the 
intention  being  to  let  them  run  straight  up,  like  the  one  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  then  arch  them  over  as  seen  in  Fig.  3.  Observe  how 
the  two  suckers  have  been  intentionally  selected  not  to  be 
exactly  opposite,  one  about  four  inches  below  the  other,  this 
being  essential  to  form  strong,  independent  branches.  It  would 
require  a  great  number  of  diagrams  and  a  too  lengthy 
description  to  attempt  an  explanation  of  the  process  whereby 
the  perfect  conditions  of  principle  are  secured.  How  weak 


186  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

limbs  are  made  strong  enough  to  overtake  those  which  are 
strong  already,  and  how  new  ones  are  raised  at  any  desired 
position,  may  be  seen  in  the  various  orchards  of  Mr.  G.  O. 
Hilton,  and  on  the  u  Ana  Belle"  ranch  of  Mr.  T.  F.  Jones,  all 
of  which  are  situated  in  the  "  Lemon  Villa"  tract  of  the  San 
Diego  Mesa,  where  new  limbs  from  one  and  a  half  to  two 
inches  thick  have  been  raised  in  less  than  two  years,  notwith- 
standing the  exceptionally  dry  seasons. 

When  the  necessary  well-placed  limbs  have  been  obtained, 
the  most  eligible  ones  are  selected  for  structural  purposes, 
future  fruit,  whereas  the  others  are  reserved  for  present  fruit 
only. 

The  same  remarks  apply  to  Fig.  2;  and  as  to  Fig.  3, 
although  at  present  it  looks  to  be  the  most  unlikely  thing  out 
of  which  to  evolve  a  good  tree,  it  will  nevertheless  make  the 
best  structure  and  get  into  shape  quicker  than  either  of  the 
other  two.  All  that  is  wanted  to  make  it  perfect  would  be  to 
have  the  two  branches  right  and  left  in  the  picture  not  located 
so  nearly  opposite  to  each  other. 

On  each  of  these  three  arched  branches  two  suckers  are 
allowed  to  run,  say  one  about  one  foot  and  the  other  sixteen 
inches  from  the  trunk  (all  other  growth  being  suppressed), 
and  when  properly  matured  these  suckers  are  similarly  arched, 
one  to  the  right  and  one  to  the  left  of  the  respective  original 
three  branches,  which  by  this  time  will  be  set  into  position  and 
may  therefore  be  shortened  in,  leaving  to  each  a  sufficiently 
long  projecting  stub  to  which  the  corresponding  newly 
arched  suckers  may  be  fastened,  and  thus  no  longer  obstruct 
the  ground  below.  There  will  then  be  three  main  branches, 
each  subdivided  into  two  secondary  branches,  giving  six 
structural  points  around  a  circle;  and  by  a  succession  of 
similar  operations  these  are  in  due  time  doubled  to  make 
twelve,  and  so  on,  always  remembering  to  leave  sufficient 
space  between  each  of  these  fan-like  main  branches  so  as  to 
allow  a  man  to  crawl  through  them  and  get  into  the  middle  of 
the  tree  to  command  the  inside  surface  as  far  as  he  can  reach. 

Everything,  in  fact,  is  reduced  to  a  perfect  system,  rendering 
the  work  a  pleasure  rather  than  a  toil. 

Plates  XX  and  XXI  commend  themselves,  but  here  the 
structural  frame  is  not  visible  at  all,  or  the  effect  would  proba- 
bly be  as  startling  as  in  the  three  cases  discussed  above.  Of 


THE   LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 


187 


course,  each  tree  being  a  separate  proposition  in  itself,  it  is 
needless  to  say  that  where  there  is  found  already  a  tolerably 
good  supply  of  well-placed  branches,  an  opportunity  is  offered 
for  an  almost  immediate  symmetrical  appearance.  But  this 
ambition  must  not  be  too  greatly  encouraged  to  the  detriment 
of  solidity,  for  it  is  easier  and  quicker  to  build  a  proper  branch 
anew  than  to  patch  up  an  old  one.  To  know  what  to  remove 
and  what  to  leave  is  an  art  to  be  acquired  only  by  practice. 

OPEN-CENTER   PRUNING  OF  THE  LEMON.* 

(Modified  from  the  Baronio  Method.) 


Skeleton  sketch  of  a  cross-section  of  an  open-center  tree, 
indicate  where  to  cut  limbs. 


Hair  lines 


In  the  early  days  of  citrus  culture  in  California  many  lemon- 
growers  did  not  believe  in  pruning.  At  the  present  time  there 
may  be  a  few  who  still  cling  to  the  idea  that  nature  should  be 
let  alone;  but  nearly  all  observant  growers  have  been  forced, 
by  the  logic  of  facts,  to  the  conclusion  that  the  lemon  tree,  in 
all  its  varieties,  needs  pruning,  more  or  less  severe,  to  bring 
about  the  best  results. 

While  the  untrained  tree  grows  rapidly  and  produces  heavy 

*By  C.  W.  Leffingwell,  Jr.,  Manager  of  the  "  Leffingwell  Orchards," 
Fullerton,  Cal. 


188  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

crops,  the  fruit  runs  largely  to  culls,  and  often  fails  to  come 
to  a  profitable  size.  The  tree,  with  its  great  load  of  fruit  grow- 
ing at  the  ends  of  long  limbs,  is  at  the  mercy  of  the  winds,  and 
is  often  split  and  ruined  by  the  mere  weight  of  its  burden. 
Therefore,  it  may  be  true  that  the  lemon  tree  left  to  itself  will 
produce  heavily,  but  it  is  generally  recognized  that  to  produce 
the  largest  per  cent  of  good-sized  and  fancy  lemons  the  tree 
must  be  intelligently  pruned. 

In  the  method  of  pruning  given  in  the  sketch  the  main  object 
'has  been  to  shorten  back  and  strengthen  the  scaffold  or  main 
limbs,  so  that  they  will  «arry  their  load  nearer  the  center  of 
the  tree  and  be  stocky  and  stiff  enough  to  withstand  strong 
winds  without  swaying  and  bruising  the  fruit.  This  method, 
properly  carried  out,  has  produced  good  results.  It  has,  how- 
ever, caused  a  tendency  in  the  tree  to  form  too  thick  and  dense 
a  head;  a  tendency  very  hard  to  combat.  Even  when  carefully 
thinned  out,  trees  shortened  back  in  this  way  grow  faster  in 
their  tops  than  in  their  lateral  branches;  on  the  principle  that 
the  sap  flows  most  freely  in  vertical  lines.  The  result  is  apt 
to  be  a  tree  high  and  all  top;  and  this  top,  while  beautiful  to 
behold  (to  a  "  tenderfoot")  is  not  fruitful,  but  consists  chiefly 
of  rank-growing,  vertical  leaders,  commonly  called  suckers. 
These  suckers  are  not  supplied  with  fruit  spurs,  and  are  as 
worthless  as  so  much  bamboo.  Even  did  they  bear  fruit,  it 
would  be  almost  inaccessible,  and  expensive  to  pick.  The 
lower  limbs,  naturally  the  most  fruitful,  are  robbed  of  sap 
by  the  superior  drawing  powers  of  the  top,  and  fail  to  do 
their  duty. 

To  overcome  these  difficulties  the  "  open  center "  style  of 
pruning  has  been  tried,  and  has  given  good  results.  By 
eliminating  the  top  entirely,  the  sap  is  thrown  into  the  lower 
branches.  These  limbs  being  horizontal  rather  than  vertical, 
and  more  or  less  bent,  elaborate  or  digest  the  sap  and  produce 
heavy  crops  of  good-sized  fruit.  This  fruit,  moreover,  is  within 
reach  from  the  ground  and  can  be  economically  picked. 
When  the  tree  is  once  adapted  to  this  form,  the  regular  prun- 
ing is  more  easily  and  quickly  performed,  the  number  of  limbs 
to  be  cut  being  greatly  reduced,  and  all  being  within  reach 
from  the  ground. 

An  explanation  of  the  details  of  this  system  should  properly 
come  under  two  heads:  u the.  pruning  of  young  trees,"  and 


THE    LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 


189 


u  the  alteration  of  old  trees."  As  most  of  the  lemon  trees  in 
California  are  three  years  old  or  over,  this  paper  will  be  con- 
fined to  a  discussion  of  the  method  of  altering  old  trees  to 
conform  to  the  "open  center"  style. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  trees  to  be  altered  are  branched  fairly 
near  the  ground.  If  they  haVe  been  up  high  no  system  of 
pruning  will  bring  the  fruit  within  reach  from  the  ground,  but 
to  cut  out  the  tops  will  save  sap  and  make  the  lower  limbs, 
such  as  they  are,  more  fruitful. 


Lemon  tree  pruned  by  the  open-center  method. 

Assuming,  then,  that  the  grower  has  trained  his  trees  near 
the  ground,  and  has  not  caused  the  branches  to  grow  up  for 
elephants  to  walk  under,  the  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows: 
Draw  an  imaginary  line  around  the  outside  of  the  tree,  as  high 
up  as  a  man  can  reach  standing  on  a  picking-box.  All  the 
limbs  that  terminate  above  this  line  should  be  cut  out.  Cut 
them  oft' at  their  juncture  with  the  limbs  that  terminate  below 
the  imaginary  line.  The  sketch  on  page  187  shows  roughly 


190  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

the  places  where  to  cut  to  eliminate  the  top.  When  this  is 
done  the  top  of  the  tree,  looking  down  into  it,  will  look  like  the 
inside  of  an  inverted  cone,  and  the  tree  may  be  called  open- 
centered. 

If  the  trees  are  small,  cut  out  all  limbs  that  extend  up  from 
the  center  of  the  tree  at  an  angle  greater  than  forty-five 
degrees  from  the  horizontal.  The  tree  in  appearance  will  then 
be  proportionately  the  same  as  the  older  tree  above  described, 
and  can  be  trained  gradually  to  the  same  limit  of  height. 

The  after-treatment  of  an  open-centered  tree,  whatever  its 
size,  resolves  itself  into  two  distinct  operations:  the  treatment 
of  the  hollow  top.  and  the  training  of  the  main  branches. 

The  hollow,  cone-shaped  opening  in  the  top  of  the  tree  will 
soon  be  filled  with  shoots  springing  from  buds  on  the  main 
limbs,  these  buds  being  now  exposed  to  the  sun  and  excited 
into  growth.  Some  of  these  shoots  will  stop  growing  when  from 
six  to  twelve  inches  long,  and  will  harden  up  and  form  fruit 
spurs.  Others  of  these  shoots  will  continue  to  grow  at  their 
terminal  bud,  retaining  the  color  and  appearance  of  tender 
sucker  growth.  When  all  have  grown  long  enough  to  show 
their  character,  cut  out  the  suckers  and  leave  the  fruit  spurs. 
As  a  result  the  saucer-like  top  of  the  tree  will  in  time  be 
clothed  with  short  spurs,  shading  the  main  limbs,  and  bearing 
fruit  of  finest  quality.  The  top,  before  a  dense  thicket,  is  now 
made  fruitful,  without  in  any  way  interfering  with  the  remain- 
ing (most  fruitful)  branches.  With  each  growth  the  suckers 
will  for  some  years  persist  in  coming,  but  are  easy  to  take  out 
as  soon  as  they  show  their  identity. 

The  treatment  of  the  lower  branches  which  remain  is  the 
same  as  if  the  top  had  not  been  removed.  If  the  tree  has 
been  well  trained  from  the  start  its  skeleton  will  consist  of 
three  or  four  strong  main  branches  leaving  the  trunk  near  the 
ground,  and  running  out  more  or  less  horizontally;  and  one  or 
two  more  sets  or  decks  of  the  same  number  of  branches,  leaving 
the  trunk  above  these  and  extending  out  at  an  angle  of  from 
thirty  to  forty-five  degrees.  These  limbs  will  have  been 
pruned  back  at  intervals,  and,  forming  forks  at  each  pruning, 
will  be  found  to  support  an  increasing  number  of  branches  as 
the  outside  of  the  tree  is  approached. 

The  problem  is  now  to  handle  the  new  growth  on  the  tips  of 
these  branches.  In  solving  this  problem  we  should  keep  in 


THE    LEMON    IN   CALIFORNIA — PRUNING.  191 

mind  the  objects  in  view,  which  are:  to  make  the  tree  stocky, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  keep  it  from  getting  too  dense.  The 
pruning  should  be  confined  entirely  to  an  effort  to  control  the 
growth  of  the  skeleton  of  the  tree,  letting  nature  take  care  of 
the  fruit  spurs  with  which  this  skeleton  is  clothed. 

The  terminal  shoots  or  leaders  of  the  tree  should  be  left 
alone  until  they  have  grown  to  be  several  feet  in  length  and 
from  one  quarter  to  one  half  inch  in  diameter.  They  should 
then  be  cut  back,  leaving  from  six  to  ten  inches  from  the  last 
pruning.  In  cutting  back  a  vertical  leader,  cut  to  a  bud  that 
points  out,  away  from  the  tree;  horizontal  leaders  should  be 
cut  to  a  bud  that  points  up.  By  persevering  in  this  practice 
the  limbs  can  be  trained  out,  then  up,  then  out  again;  they 
will  be  angular  and  crooked,  which  is  conducive  to  fruitful- 
ness.  Their  angling  direction  will  help  to  brace  them  against 
the  evergrowing  leverage  of  their  fruit  and  foliage,  so  that, 
while  they  may  in  time  be  bent  down  to  the  horizontal,  they 
will  never  droop  and  rest  upon  the  ground. 

After  each  cutting  back  these  leaders  should  be  left  alone  and 
nature  given  full  sway;  and  this  is  what  will  happen:  Five  or 
six  buds  nearest  the  cut  will  be  excited  into  growth.  Then 
will  ensue  a  struggle  to  see  which  of  these  buds  will  get  the 
most  sap.  The  terminal  bud  is  sure  to  get  its  share,  and 
become  a  strong,  sucker-like  shoot.  Probably  one  or  two  others 
will  secure  enough  nutriment  to  become  suckers  likewise.  The 
rest  of  the  buds  will  have  to  give  up  their  ambition  to  shine, 
and  will  settle  down  to  the  domestic  role  of  bearing  lemons, 
and  thus  perpetuating  their  species.  These  are  the  shoots  that 
we  are  after.  Were  it  not  for  the  cutting  back  these  buds 
would  become  dormant  and  lost  to  use;  the  leader  on  which 
they  are  situated  would  grow  five  or  six  feet  perhaps,  before 
nature  would  make  another  branching,  and  give  more  buds  a 
chance  to  go  to  housekeeping. 

How  to  handle  the  shoots  which  get  the  sap  and  become 
leaders  is  an  important  question.  It  is  right  here  that  judi- 
cious thinning  should  be  done,  to  keep  the  tree  from  becoming 
too  dense.  All  the  shoots  should  be  left  until  long  enough 
to  show  which  will  be  fruit  spurs  and  which  leaders.  All 
but  one  of  the  leaders,  the  one  which  points  in  the  desired 
direction,  should  be  cut  off  clean.  This  leader  will  thus  become 
the  foundation  of  all  future  growth  on  this  branch.  At 


192  STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

next  pruning  it  would  be  well  to  leave  two  leaders,  laying  the 
foundation  for  a  new  branch.  By  alternating  in  this  way  we 
can  increase  the  number  of  ramifications  of  the  tree,  without 
getting  it  too  dense — the  trouble  with  most  lemon  trees. 

These  new  leaders,  when  grown  big  enough,  should  in  turn 
be  cut  back,  and  treated  in  the  same  manner.  Beyond  this, 
and  keeping  water-sprouts  out  of  the  center,  little  need  be  done 
to  the  tree.  Nature  will  take  care  of  the  rest. 

It  may  seem  impracticable  to  apply  one  set  of  rules  to  all 
varieties  of  the  lemon  tree,  but  in  the  experience  of  the  writer, 
all  have  responded  to  this  method  of  treatment.  The  Lisbon, 
being  first  and  last  a  lusty  grower,  is  bound,  whatever  the 
style  of  pruning,  to  make  a  rank  mass  of  new  wood.  Let  it 
grow,  and  cut  off  what  is  not  wanted;  let  it  grow  again,  and 
cut  it  back  again.  It  can  be  made  to  bear  plenty  of  fruit 
within  easy  reach;  if  left  to  itself  it  will  produce  little  but 
stovewood. 

The  Eureka  and  Villa  Franca,  being  of  more  tractable  habits, 
form  less  and  less  new  wood  as  they  grow  older  and  their 
crops  increase;  so  that  in  time  little  or  no  pruning  is  necessary. 

The  question  has  been  asked,  whether  the  fruit  spurs  of  the 
lemon  go  on  bearing,  or  die  after  bearing  a  few  crops;  mak- 
ing necessary  a  constant  growth  of  new  wood,  as  with  the 
orange  and  peach.  From  observation  the  writer  believes  that 
the  lemon  spur,  with  the  apple  and  pear,  is  long  lived  and 
goes  on  bearing  for  years.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  spurs  are 
really  short  lived,  severe  pruning  alone  will  insure  new  wood. 

No  radical  system  should  be  generally  adopted  without  care- 
ful trial.  The  "open  center"  system  has  been  applied  to  a 
large  acreage  of  lemon  trees,  with  unmistakable  benefits,  and 
the  number  of  acres  so  treated  is  increasing.  In  the  orchards 
in  charge  of  the  writer  sixteen  thousand  trees,  mostly  three 
years  old,  have  been  changed  to  conform  to  this  style.  Hardly 
a  lemon  has  been  lost  in  the  transformation,  and  prominent 
horticulturists  pronounce  the  trees  unsurpassed  for  their  age, 
in  size,  condition,  or  fruitfulness.  Where  before  was  despair 
as  to  what  to  do  with  the  troublesome  tops,  now  all  is  simple 
and  easily  done.  It  would  pay  every  lemon-grower  to  try 
these  suggestions  on  a  few  trees,  and  let  the  results  speak  for 
themselves. 


THE    LEMON    IN   CALIFORNIA— PRUNING.  193 

OPEN    HORIZONTAL  TRIMMING.* 

It  is  so  called  because  the  tree  is  trimmed  to  present  this 
form.  It  is  a  compromise  between  the  one-deck  form  of  the 
perfect  Baronio,  and  the  method  of  allowing  trees  to  run  to 
suckers. 

The  principles  of  Barry,  Downing,  and  Baronio  are  well 
established,  and  their  utility  is  understood  by  observing  stu- 
dents of  horticulture. 

Trees  can  be  trained  to  grow  in  the  square,  espalier,  globe, 
vase,  or  neglected  form.  The  requisite  is  to  have  a  definite 
idea  of  the  form  desired  and  of  the  office  the  tree  is  to  per- 
form. We  get  peculiar  ideas  of  form  rather  from  sentiment 
than  from  thought  of  utility  or  profit.  We  think  the  form  we 
have  been  used  to  seeing  is  the  only  proper  one  to  produce, 
hence  cannot  think  of  an  apple  tree  trimmed  on  the  cordon  plan 
(raising  fruit  on  parallel  limbs  not  two  feet  from  the  ground). 
There  was  a  man  who  thought  lemon  trees  should  be  trimmed 
up  high  like  he  had  seen  apple  trees  in  New  York — so  that 
horses  could  pass  under  the  lowest  limbs.  He  is  now  clerking 
in  a  livery  stable.  We  do  not  fail  to  trim  the  grape  until  a 
vineyard  looks  like  a  conception  of  a  portion  of  Inferno  by 
Dante  and  Dore.  But  it  is  the  profitable  way  to  do.  We 
sucker  corn  because  we  want  ears  instead  of  bare  stalks.  Why 
not  treat  the  lemon  as  commercially?  It  is  simply  a  business 
proposition  to  remove  all  the  superfluous  timber,  and  to  retain 
the  bearing  surfaces.  It  means  dollars  to  have  the  tree  low 
and  open,  rather  than  so  lofty  that  the  price  of  the  fruit  is 
consumed  in  traveling  up  and  down  the  stepladder  to  get  it. 

Trees  arrange  their  forms  by  reason  of  the  different  methods 
of  the  distribution  of  sap.  The  oak  differs  from  the  cypress 
by  reason  of  this  unerring  law.  Shrubs,  conifers,  palms,  and 
all  forms  of  vegetation  assume  their  respective  shapes  because 
the  sap  is  differently  disposed.  Some  trees,  if  left  to  themselves, 
run  all  the  sap  to  the  extremities,  as  is  the  case  with  the  peach, 
apricot,  and  others,  hence  in  their  case  the  extremities  must  be 
severely  cut  back,  or  there  is  a  crop  of  dead  wood  in  the  center 
of  the  tree. 

We  deduce  from  this  principle,  which  we  have  not  time  to 

*By  George  P.  Hall,  of  San  Diego. 

13c 


194  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

enlarge  upon  here,  the  conclusion  that  the  vigor  of  the  tree 
depends  upon  an  equal  distribution  of  the  flow  of  sap.  Dead 
wood  is  the  result  of  loss  of  sap  in  either  root  or  limb.  Trees 
left  to  themselves  assume  an  individuality  that  is  seldom 
profitable.  The  wild  apple,  orange,  and  lemon  are  of  little 
value  commercially.  We  must  therefore  train  them  along  lines 
of  production.  To  obtain  certain  results  we  must  direct  the 
flow  of  sap  in  the  channels  we  wish  it  to  flow,  having  a  definite 
purpose  in  view,  otherwise  all  so-called  trimming  is  simply 
butchery.  The  tree  must  be  balanced,  therefore  arrest  growth 
where  there  is  a  superfluity  and  encourage  growth  where  it  is 
lacking.  Trim  short  when  wood  growth  is  desired.  Use  the 
biblical  injunction,  "To  him  that  hath  shall  be  given,  and  to 
him  that  hath  not  shall  be  taken  away  even  that  which  he 
hath."  Cut  feeble  limbs  short  and  encourage  upright  growth, 
because  upright  growth  produces  wood.  The  feeble  parts 
deprived  of  fruit  will  produce  wood;  the  strong  parts  loaded 
with  fruit  will  produce  less  wood.  Bend  the  strong  parts  down, 
keep  the  weak  erect.  The  more  erect  the  branches  the  greater 
the  flow  of  sap  to  the  growing  parts,  hence  the  feeble  parts  left 
erect  attract  more  sap  than  the  strong  parts  bent  down  or 
inclined.  Sap  acts  with  more  force  on  a  limb  pruned  short 
than  on  a  long  one.  Two  buds  with  the  same  flow  of  sap  as  in 
twenty  buds  will  be  stronger  than  any  of  the  twenty.  Prune 
short  for  wood  branches,  because  vigorous  shoots  produce  few 
fruit  buds.  Prune  long  for  fruit,  as  it  is  the  most  tender  and 
feeble  buds  that  produce  the  fruit;  bending  the  limbs  at  an 
angle  or  to  a  horizontal  position  to  produce  fruit  buds.  Prune 
short  the  parts  that  have  overborne;  to  secure  a  prolongation, 
prune  to  a  vigorous  wood  bud  and  let  nothing  interfere.  The 
more  the  sap  is  obstructed  in  its  circulation  the  more  the  tree 
is  disposed  to  produce  fruit.  The  sap  traveling  slowly  is 
subjected  to  slower  assimilation  and  is  better  adapted  to  the 
production  of  fruit. 

To  change  a  fruit  branch  to  wood  give  it  an  upright  position; 
to  make  a  wood  branch  bear  fruit  bend  it  to  nearly  a  horizontal 
position. 

Light  and  air  are  essential.  The  rapid  growth  is  toward  the 
source  of  light.  Upward  growth  gives  strength  of  wood  but 
less  fruit. 

I  do  not  say  the  horizontal  method  is  the  only  one,  for  fruit 


THE    LEMON   IN   CALIFORNIA — PRUNING.  195 

can  be  produced  on  a  tree  of  different  form,  but  I  do  say  that 
the  principles  which  I  have  stated  must  be  followed  in  order  to 
obtain  the  best  results  financially,  and  also  to  promote  the 
longevity  of  the  tree. 

My  reasons  for  advocating  the  horizontal  form  are  that  fruit 
raised  on  short  spurs  is  less  expensive  to  pick,  is  of  better 
quality,  and  the  tree  relieved  of  its  superfluous  wood  may 
develop  into  a  fruit  producer  instead  of  being  a  specimen  of 
growth  under  the  timber  culture  act.  The  tree  cannot  produce 
an  immense  amount  of  wood  and  bear  a  large  quantity  of  good 
fruit  at  one  and  the  same  time.  Educate  the  tree  to  cease 
raising  suckers,  and  the  height  and  size  of  your  trees  are 
controlled. 

In  cutting  back  large  trees  and  in  retaining  all  the  horizontal 
limbs,  the  tree  immediately  turns  its  attention  toward  fruit- 
fulness,  because  the  sap  is  directed  along  fruitful  channels 
instead  of  being  sent  toward  the  sky.  By  preserving  all  well- 
placed  limbs  a  foundation  to  build  on  is  secured,  with  some 
expectation  of  reaping  a  reward  for  labor  expended. 

The  cost  of  picking  fruit  from  trees  trimmed  on  the  horizon- 
tal plan,  and  not  more  than  eight  or  ten  feet  in  height,  is 
greatly  reduced. 

We  can  but  barely  hint  at  the  wideness  of  the  application 
of  the  principles  of  the  horizontal  method,  so  we  simply 
recapitulate: 

Trees  receive  their  individual  form  by  the  natural  direction 
of  the  sap,  therefore  direct  the  sap  and  you  control  the  tree. 

Most  trees  send  the  sap  to  the  top,  being  drawn  thereto  by 
the  sun.  Change  the  habit. 

Vigor  of  the  tree  depends  on  equal  distribution  of  the  sap, 
therefore  distribute  it  by  judicious  trimming. 

Trees  left  entirely  to  themselves  are  seldom  profitable.  The 
wild  tree  must  be  civilized  by  grafting  or  budding,  and 
pruning. 

Trees  can  be  trained  to  assume  at  the  same  time  profitable 
and  symmetrical  forms.  Results  come  from  systematically 
directing  the  growing  life  of  the  tree. 

The  tree  must  be  balanced  top  and  root.  Pruning  gives 
activity  to  root  growth.  Loss  of  limbs  incites  healthy  action 
of  the  roots. 


196  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

Deprive  the  feeble  parts  of  fruit,  and  make  the  vigorous 
parts  bear  all  they  will. 

Bend  the  strong  parts  down,  put  the  weak  erect.  Tie  and 
arrange  limbs  as  you  want  them.  Make  the  tree  your  servant. 

The  greater  the  number  of  erect  limbs  in  a  tree,  the  sooner 
will  its  vitality  be  exhausted;  it  lives  too  fast. 

Fruit  grown  on  short  spurs  is  less  liable  to  injury. 

The  horizontal  type  of  pruning  gives  a  definite  plan  for  the 
life  and  habit  of  your  tree,  which  is  immensely  superior  to  all 
others. 

Lay  a  horizontal  superstructure,  and  you  build  your  tree 
strongly. 

It  is  important  that  the  man  who  plans  the  form  of  the  tree 
should  follow  its  training  thereafter.  Do  not  deliver  it  over  to 
the  accidental  haggler  who  does  not  understand  your  plan, 
and  has  none  of  his  own.  Snipping  is  not  trimming. 

There  is  but  little  loss  of  fruit,  or  time,  in  changing  the 
form  of  the  tree  by  the  horizontal  method  of  pruning;  the  tree 
immediately  begins  a  fruitful  career. 

IMP^ 


Tree  pruned  by  the  so-called  "  Semi-Baronio  System." 

SEMI-BARONIO    SYSTEM. 

As  is  often  the  case,  there  are  always  many  who  believe  they 
can  improve  upon  whatever  method  may  be  used,  as  in  this 
instance.  Several  orchards  have  been  treated  by  what  is  called 


THE   LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — TREATMENT.  197 

the  "  Semi-Baronio  System."  This  consists  mainly  of  taking  out 
the  center  of  large  trees,  allowing  the  ingress  of  air  and  light, 
but  otherwise  without  any  scientific  principle.  The  growth  at 
the  top  and  on  the  outside  is  cut  back  as  in  the  rounding 
system  of  old.  The  branches  put  forth  numerous  shoots,  which 
are  again  shortened  the  season  following,  and  so  the  work 
goes  on. 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  LEMON. 

The  systems  of  processing  the  lemon  for  market  are  numerous, 
but  in  all  the  main  objects  are  to  reduce  the  thickness  of  the 
rind,  to  close  up  the  pores  of  the  skin  in  a  natural  way,  so  as 
to  render  the  texture  smooth  and  velvety  to  the  touch,  while 
the  lemon  remains  firm  and  solid,  to  increase  its  juiciness, 
and  to  hold  the  fruit  in  that  condition  to  supply  the  market1 
when  it  is  at  its  best. 

J.  W.  Freeman,  of  Ontario,  gives  the  following  suggestions 
in  handling  and  processing  lemons,  derived  from  the  experience 
of  years  of  processing  and  marketing  lemons  by  the  Ontario 
Exchange: 

"  The  question  that  is  now  to  the  front  in  the  lemon  industry 
is  what  might  properly  be  termed  lemon-holding.  Those  most 
familiar  with  the  business  have,  for  some  time,  been  convinced 
that  some  way  should  be  devised  for  taking  the  surplus  fruit 
off  the  winter  market,  and  holding  it  for  the  summer  trade. 
Indeed,  the  life  of  the  industry  seemed  to  depend  upon  the  possi- 
bility of  that  being  successfully  done.  With  that  end  in  view 
a  few  of  our  growers,  beginning  with  the  November  pick,  held 
their  winter  lemons  until  May,  June,  and  July,  of  the  season 
of  1896-97,  securing  satisfactory  results  as  to  keeping  qualities 
and  prices.  Encouraged  by  the  success  of  these,  some  eighty  of 
our  members  pursued  the  same  plan  the  following  season,  with 
like  results,  excepting  that  some  of  the  fruit  was  marketed  in 
August,  a  month  later  than  the  year  before.  It  would  be  only 
fair  to  say  that  success  has  not  been  uniform  in  each  case,  but 
it  has  been  in  proportion  to  the  care  taken  and  the  facilities  for 
storing  the  fruit.  An  expensive  house  is  not  necessary,  indeed 
almost  any  place  will  do  in  winter,  but  appliances  for  keeping 
a  low,  even  temperature  are  necessary  in  summer,  and  doubt- 
less are  desirable  in  winter  as  well.  A  fairly  tight  box  with 


198  STATE    BOARD   OF    HORTICULTURE. 

plenty  of  fresh  air  circulating  about  it,  at  a  temperature 
between  60°  and  70°,  seems  to  us  to  be  the  essential  condition 
for  the  best  success  in  holding  lemons.  Shade  will  greatly  help 
in  keeping  down  temperature,  and  is,  by  some,  thought  to  be 
equal  to  a  double  wall.  Means  should  be  provided,  by  doors, 
windows,  or  ventilators,  for  thoroughly  changing  the  air  every 
night,  unless  in  very  damp  weather,  when  it  might  be  advisable 
to  air  in  daytime.  Fruit  should  not  be  allowed  to  wilt  before 
putting  away,  but  the  boxes  should  be  left  somewhat  open  for 
a  time,  varying  according  to  the  conditions  of  the  place  in 
which  they  are,  to  allow  surplus  moisture  to  pass  off.  The  top 
boxes  should  be  well  covered  so  that  the  fruit  will  not  dry  out 
and  thus  become  worthless.  It  is  desirable  to  retard  what  is 
known  as  the  curing  process  as  long  as  possible,  so  each  grower 
should  study  the  conditions  of  his  house,  and  have  as  little 
evaporation  as  possible,  without  allowing  moisture  to  collect 
on  the  fruit.  This  will  also  prevent  the  fruit's  getting  soft. 
Stacking  fruit  in  large  piles  without  spaces  between  should  be 
avoided,  although  we  have  known  it  to  keep  well  for  a  time  in 
that  way,  when  it  was  not  in  a  close  room.  Medium-sized 
houses  seem  to  be  preferable.  To  be  in  ideal  condition  the 
fruit  should  come  out  firm,  with  stems  fast  and  green.  This 
will  not  be  the  case  if  fruit  heats  or  sweats.  The  fruit  should 
be  placed  so  that  it  can  be  inspected  occasionally,  that  defects 
may  be  remedied. 

lt  Having  said  this  much,  any  description  of  a  house  will  be 
unnecessary,  as  such  a  one  as  will  meet  the  requirements  of 
each  grower  will  readily  suggest  itself.  I  might  say.  however, 
that  a  sloping  roof  inside  with  air  holes  at  ridge  will  give 
better  ventilation  than  a  flat  ceiling.  We  deem  it  desirable,  if 
not  essential,  that  each  grower  hold  his  own  fruit. 

"A  word  as  to  the  fruit.  All  that  has  ever  been  said  as  to 
the  need  of  carefully  handling  the  fruit  should  have  full 
weight.  The  trees  should  be  kept  clean.  The  fruit  cannot  be 
at  its  best  if  the  trees  are  infested  with  scale  and  the  fruit  has 
to  be  washed;  but  should  that  be  the  case,  the  lemons  should, 
by  all  means,  be  brushed  or  washed  when  taken  from  the  trees. 
The  fruit  should  be  looked  over  carefully  and  the  inferior, 
dark-colored,  and  small-sized  kept  by  themselves  with  a  view  to 
earlier  marketing.  Fruit  carefully  picked  and  properly  stored 
under  right  conditions,  if  uninjured  by  frost,  will  need  very 


THE    LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — TREATMENT.  199 

little  handling,  if  any,  before  shipping.  The  less  handling  the 
better.  So  much  fruit  as  the  trade  will  take  at  fair  prices 
should  be  marketed  during  the  winter.  The  matter  of  the 
desirability  of  winter  marketing  will  have  to  be  governed  by 
the  outlook  for  the  coming  summer  and  the  supply. 

"  What  effect  a  heavy  rain  or  an  irrigation  has  on  the  keep- 
ing qualities  of  fruit  picked  immediately  after,  is  a  disputed 
question.  Ordinarily  no  harm  can  come  by  waiting,  and  good 
may.  The  important  points  regarding  the  question  of  storing 
are,  we  think,  fairly  well  covered,  so  far  as  our  experience  goes, 
and  they  are:  Experience  in  picking  the  lemons  at  their  proper 
maturity  and  size;  the  greatest  care  and  tenderness  in  hand- 
ling them  in  all  the  processes  of  storage  and  marketing;  keep- 
ing them  in  an  even  temperature  of  from  60°  to  70°,  and 
frequent  change  of  air  in  the  storage  house  and  apartments; 
and  individual  holdings." 

A.  J.  Everest,  manager  of  the  Everest  orchards  at  Riverside, 
in  the  "California  Fruit  Grower"  of  November  25,  1895, 
describes  his  method  of  picking,  curing,  and  packing  lemons 
for  shipment,  as  follows: 

u  We  pick  our  lemons  whenever  they  are  large  enough,  with- 
out regard  to  color,  preferably  while  green  or  slightly  turned, 
taking  care  that  no  fruit  smaller  than  the  300  size  to  the  box 
is  picked,  as  the  fruit  shrinks  some  in  curing,  and  thus  increases 
the  number  to  the  box.  We  have  used  rings  to  determine  the 
size,  but  find  it  too  much  trouble  to  try  a  ring  on  each  lemon, 
and  now  give  each  packer  a  lemon  of  the  proper  size,  and  let 
him  continually  compare  his  picking. 

"  After  being  picked  we  haul  the  lemons  to  the  shed,  and 
pile  them  up  in  the  picking-boxes  for  two  or  three  weeks  or 
until  most  of  the  moisture  is  dried  out,  before  placing  them  in 
the  curing-house.  We  then  wrap  the  lemons  separately  in  tissue 
paper  and  lay  them  on  trays  one  layer  deep,  having  previously 
graded  the  fruit.  We  then  store  them  in  our  curing-house, 
which  is  made  with  double  walls,  filled  in  with  sawdust  to  keep 
the  room  at  an  even  temperature.  We  have  ventilators  in 
ceiling  and  floor  of  room,  and  regulate  amount  of  fresh  air 
and  temperature  by  them,  allowing  temperature  to  stand  from 
56°  to  60°  as  a  rule. 

"  Storage  curing  trays  are  about  three  inches  deep  with  a 
cleat  on  each  end,  thus  raising  them  up  to  allow  the  air  to 


200  STATE    BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

circulate  among  the  fruit,  and  to  keep  everything  dry  as  far  as 
advisable.  We  find  that  fruit  picked  early  and  while  quite 
green,  say  in  November,  always  cures  the  best  and  with  the 
least  possible  shrinkage  or  loss  by  decay. 

"  When  packing  the  fruit  for  shipment,  the  wraps  that  were 
used  for  curing  can  be  used,  except  where  the  paper  has  been 
moistened  by  decay  in  the  vicinity  or  is  torn  or  wet  from  other 
causes.  It  is  better  to  remove  all  old  wraps,  regrade  the  fruit, 
and  then  pack  the  same  as  oranges,  using  if  possible  the  Sicily 
style  of  box,  which  is  obtainable  now  on  this  Coast." 

In  1890,  N.  W.  Blanchard,  of  Santa  Paula,  an  extensive 
lemon-grower,  and  President  and  General  Manager  of  the 
Lemonia  Company,  of  Santa  Paula,  read  an  essay  on  "The 
lemon  and  its  treatment,"  before  the  State  Fruit-Growers'  Con- 
vention, in  which  he  described  his  method  of  curing  lemons, 
essentially  the  same  as  now  practiced  by  him.  In  1894,  in  an 
essay  before  the  Farmers'  Institute  at  Santa  Barbara,  he  said: 

"The  essentials  for  keeping  lemons  several  months  are  to 
exclude  the  air,  or  any  circulation  of  air  around  the  fruit,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  give  ample  circulation  of  air  about  the 
trays  or  boxes  that  contain  the  lemons.  My  experience  is,  that 
if  there  are  a  good  many  boxes  of  lemons  closely  massed,  even 
with  cool  weather  some  of  the  fruit  will  decay.  When  one 
lemon  begins  to  rot  heat  is  generated,  and  this  acts  like  yeast, 
causing  fermentation  and  rottenness  to  spread  rapidly.  I  do 
not  think  expensive  buildings  are  necessary.  I  have  seen 
no  better  cured  and  preserved  lemons  than  some  that  were 
wrapped  in  pieces  of  newspaper,  placed  in  layers  in  common 
boxes  with  more  paper  between  layers,  the  boxes  covered  with 
light  covering  so  as  to  shut  off  all  circulation  of  air,  and  all  piled 
in  the  end  of  an  airy  barn.  These  lemons  were  shown  to  me 
in  July,  and  I  was  informed  that  they  were  cut  in  November 
previous.  The  lemons  were  firm,  finely  colored,  and  in  excel- 
lent condition  for  shipment. 

"I  know  no  reason  for  changing  my  method  of  curing 
lemons.  I  continue  to  use  trays  two  by  three  feet  and  three 
inches  deep,  each  holding  only  one  layer  of  lemons.  They  are 
convenient  to  work  with  and  to  examine  the  lemons.  They 
should  be  carefully  made,  so  that  when  the  trays  are  stacked 
one  on  the  other  there  is  no  chance  for  the  air  to  reach  the 
fruit. 


THE   LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — TREATMENT.  201 

"The  lemons  are  picked  frequently,  if  there  are  any  suitable 
to  pick,  so  as  to  prevent  having  over-large  and  over-ripe  fruit. 
I  generally  use  a  ring  two  and  one  quarter  inches  in  diameter, 
and  take  all  that  will  not  pass  through  it. 

"The  lemons  are  cut  close  to  the  fruit,  handled  very  care- 
fully, hauled  from  the  orchard  in  a  truck  on  springs,  washed 
immediately  if  smutty  or  dusty,  then  placed  on  trays,  and  from 
one  to  ten  days  afterward  piled  away  for  keeping,  if  they  are 
to  be  kept  or  need  the  darkness  to  color.  If  already  colored 
and  needed  for  immediate  consumption,  the  trays  are  cross 
piled,  so  as  to  give  them  all  the  air  possible.  If  for  remote 
shipment,  the  lemons  should  be  shipped  quite  hard,  and  even 
a  little  green,  for  they  will  cure  in  transit  and  in  the  hands 
of  the  jobber  and  retailer." 

T.  J.  Ashby,  Secretary  of  the  Pasadena  Lemon-Growers' 
Association,  in  a  report  to  the  association,  says: 

"The  stems  must  be  cut  close,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
cut,  scratch,  or  bruise  the  fruit.  It  is  found  that  many  culls 
are  made  by  careless  clipping  and  long  finger  nails. 

"The  desirable  sizes  are  the  360's  in  summer  and  the  300's 
in  winter.  These  measure  '2^  and  2^  to  2|  inches.  Lemons 
above  and  below  are  graded,  subject  to  the  discretion  of  the 
manager. 

"Lemon  groves  should  be  picked  over  once  a  month.  Use 
padded  baskets  or  pails,  into  which  the  fruit  should  be  laid, 
not  dropped  or  thrown,  then  carefully  transfer  to  boxes  placed 
in  the  shade. 

"  Pick  before  irrigation  or  wait  several  days.  Never  pick 
lemons  moist  from  fog  or  dew,  or  leave  them  unprotected  after 
gathering. 

"Haul  to  the  warehouse  on  easy  springs;  drive  carefully  and 
have  the  lemons  covered  to  protect  from  dust  and  sun.  We 
advise  delivering  or  placing  in  barn  or  shed  as  soon  as  possible 
after  picking. 

"Smutty  fruit  received  will  be  washed  or  sponged  at  the 
expense  of  the  grower.  Members  have  the  option  of  doing 
this  for  themselves,  but  it  is  well  to  remember  that  spraying  or 
fumigating  is  much  less  of  an  expense. 

"  It  will  pay  the  grower  to  cull  his  own  fruit  and  not  be 
forced  to  haul  it  both  ways.  Experience  will  soon  show  a 
novice  what  to  reject. 


202  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

"The  sum  of  these  suggestions  is  that  the  one  who  brings 
the  best  grade  of  carefully  handled  fruit  is  the  one  who  gets 
the  best  returns  at  the  least  personal  expense." 

The  Advisory  Board  of  the  Lemon-Growers,  who  are  affiliated 
with  the  Southern  California  Fruit  Exchange,  through  Morton 
Haig,  of  San  Gabriel,  formulated  and  published,  in  April, 
1897,  the  following  hints  regarding  the  gathering,  etc.,  of  fruit: 

"  Have  pickers'  nails  trimmed  short;  few  will  believe  how 
much  fruit  goes  as  f  culls '  from  damage  by  long  finger  nails. 

"  Clip  the  fruit  close  to  the  stem. 

"Do  not  use  sacks  in  which  to  gather;  lemons  are  thereby 
bumped  and  bruised  with  every  movement  of  the  body.  Use 
baskets  lined  with  sacking. 

"Do  not  tumble  fruit  from  the  baskets  into  boxes,  but  handle 
lemons  as  you  would  eggs,  from  start  to  finish. 

tl  Never  pick  when  there  is  moisture  from  fog,  and  wait  at 
least  four  to  five  days  after  rain  or  irrigation. 

"Place  all  filled  boxes  on  the  north  side  of  the  tree,  and 
shade  closely  from  the  sun. 

"Go  over  trees  once  every  four  or  five  weeks,  and  thus  save 
sunburned  and  over-sized  fruit,  all  of  which  goes  as  a  third- 
grade  fruit,  or  is,  more  frequently,  thrown  out. 

"Pick  in  winter  months  to  a  uniform  size  of  2^  inches  in 
diameter,  and  in  summer  months  to  a  uniform  size  of  2^ 
inches.  Metal  rings  for  this  purpose  can  easily  be  obtained  or 
made. 

"Loaded  wagons  should  never  be  allowed  to  trot  or  bump 
over  plow  furrows,  ditches,  or  chuckholes. 

"  If  dirty  fruit  has  to  be  washed,  let  this  process  be  gotten 
over  quickly;  by  employing  the  greatest  number  possible  to 
this  end,  will  save  the  fruit  immensely.  During  all  undue 
exposures  the  work  of  deterioration  is  rapidly  progressing. 
Here  again  avoid  all  dumping  of  the  fruit,  and  look  to  washer's 
nails. 

"If  fruit  has  to  be  taken  to  depot  or  central  packing-house, 
let  it  be  done  in  summer  during  the  cool  of  the  morning  or 
evening. 

"The  grower,  in  following  out  such  suggestions,  has  then 
done  his  level  best.  A  responsible  curer,  packer,  and  a  good 
market  will  do  the  rest. 


THE    LEMON    IN    CALIFORNIA — SIZES,    HANDLING,    ETC.         203 

"The  above  applies  equally  to  oranges  in  their  separate 
treatment.  There  would  be  fewer  complaints  of  fruit  arriving 
at  its  journey's  end  'heated,'  etc.,  if  growers  were  more  partic- 
ular with  regard  to  handling. 

"It  has  been  specially  noted,  for  instance,  by  the  exchanges, 
that  during  the  wet  months  serious  damage  has  ensued  from 
gathering  oranges  too  early  after  a  heavy  rain,  and  in  many 
districts  the  'washing  and  scrubbing'  system  has  been  added  to 
the  already  soft  and  soddened  fruit  conditions." 

LEMON  SIZES-STANDARD  BOX. 

The  sizes  of  lemons  packed  for  shipment  differ  from  those 
used  in  packing  the  orange  for  shipment.  The  sizes  are  210, 
240,  250,  275,  288,  300,  360,  and  420.  Occasionally  larger  and 
smaller  sizes  are  packed,  should  the  market  warrant  their 
shipment.  Of  the  sizes  named,  the  300  and  360  are  recognized 
by  the  trade  as  regular  sizes,  and  all  others  known  as  off  sizes. 

The  standard  lemon  box,  and  the  one  now  generally  used  in 
California  is — 

Standard  Lemon  Box,  10^"  x  14"  x  27". 

Ends 3  pieces  ft"  x  10^"  x  14" 

Sides .- 2  pieces  %"x  9%"x27" 

Tops  and  bottoms 4  pieces  .V*  6^"x27" 

Cleats 2  pieces  %"  x     %"  x  13^" 

COST  OF  HANDLING  LEMONS. 

The  cost  of  handling  lemons  from  the  tree  to  the  car,  without 
including  the  expenses  mentioned,  was  given  to  the  Tariff  Com- 
mittee of  Southern  California  as  follows  by  N.  W.  Blanchard, 
of  Santa  Paula: 

"Actual  cost  of  picking,  brushing,  sorting,  and  packing 
lemons,  per  box,  including  paper  wrappers  and  boxes,  for  the 
year  1896,  as  per  account  kept  of  same,  was  63  cents.  The  box 
used  for  lemons  was  the  orange  box.  The  standard  lemon  box 
is  fifteen  per  cent  larger  than  the  orange  box,  the  standard 
box  being  10^"  x  14"  x  12i",  inside  measurements  for  each  of 
the  two  compartments.  Adding  fifteen  per  cent  to  the  above 
cost  of  63  cents  would  make  the  cost  of  the  standard  lemon 
box  72  cents. 


204 


STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


"For  labor  I  pay  the  following  prices  per  day: 

For  girls __ $1  00 

For  ordinary  men's  labor _ 1  25 

For  more  experienced  men _. 1  50 

For  foremen  of  the  pickers  in  the  orchard 1  75 

For  overseer  in  packing  lemons 200 

"The  cost  of  handling  lemons,  as  above,  does  not  include 
anything  for  general  overseer  of  the  orchard,  or  for  clerical 
help  in  the  office." 

B  A.  Woodford,  Secretary  and  Manager  of  the  Ontario 
Lemon  Exchange,  gave  the  same  committee  a  statement  show- 
ing in  detail  the  cost  of  a  box  of  lemons  from  the  tree  to  the 
car,  as  follows: 

Picking  (Hauling  calculated  in  orchard  expenses).  $0  15  to  $0  18 

Exchange  expense 20 

Packing 08 

Rent  of  plant  ($5,000  investment) ._ 08 

Curing  expense  (labor) 15 

Office  and  miscellaneous  expense 14 

Total  expense  to  car,  per  box $0  80  to  $0  83 

Freight ._.     1  00 

Cost  of  selling,  winter _ 12 

Total  cost  per  box,  winter  shipment _.  $L  92  to  $1  95 

Summer  Shipment. 

Winter  shipment $1  92  to  $1  95 

Increased  cost  of  selling  (25c.) ..-        13 

Icing _ 229 

Cost  per  box,  summer  shipment $2  279  to  $2  309 


Lemon  Grove,  Chula  Vista. 


THE    SICILIAN    LEMON    INDUSTRY.  205 


SICILIAN  LEMON  INDUSTRY. 

By  W.  CATTON  GRASBY,  F.L.S.    (Being  a  summary  of  notes  collected  by  him 
as  Honorary  Commissioner  for  the  South  Australian  Government.*) 

Sicily,  the  Home  of  the  Lemon.— Sicily  is  a  triangular 
island,  with  a  narrow  coastal  plain  bordering  a  central  moun- 
tainous plateau,  rugged  and  largely  forest-clad,  terminating  on 
the  east  in  the  black,  fissure-furrowed,  lava-covered  slopes  of 
volcanic  Etna.  On  the  north  coast  is  Palermo,  the  largest 
town,  and  chief  center  of  the  lemon  industry.  Messina  on  the 
east  coast  to  the  north  of  Etna,  and  Catania  to  the  south  of 
the  same  mountain,  divide  the  major  portion  of  the  remaining 
trade.  The  Australian  lemon  trade  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of 
Messina  merchants,  and  the  fruit  is  sent  via  Naples,  Brindisi, 
or  Marseilles.  Sulphur,  citric  acid,  oil  of  lemon,  and  sumac 
chiefly  pass  through  the  trade  channels  of  Genoa  or  London, 
or  both. 

Sicily  is  preeminently  the  home  of  the  lemon.  It  does  well 
in  many  other  places,  but  it  reaches  perfection  in  Sicily. 
Why?  The  question  is  a  most  important  one,  and  I  have 
thought  over  it  a  great  deal.  The  St.  Michael  orange,  the 
Jaffa  orange,  or  the  Sicilian  lemon,  even  when  grown  from 
trees  raised  in  other  places  and  taken  to  other  parts  of  the 
world,  generally,  for  the  time  at  least,  possess  the  outward 
form  and  general  characteristics,  but  lack  the  fine  quality 
of  the  luscious  fruit  which  has  secured  a  world-wide  reputa- 
tion. There  is  a  close  relationship,  not  at  all  understood, 
between  local  conditions  and  the  product  of  the  plants.  A 
close  study  of  the  problems  of  fruit  culture  has  led  me  to  think 
that  while  we  should  introduce  all  new  and  desirable  varieties 
of  fruits  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  because  we  never  know 
which  will  prove  particularly  valuable  under  our  conditions, 
we  should  pay  a  great  deal  more  attention  to  the  improvement 
of  our  own  varieties.  I  must  not,  however,  discuss  the  whole 
question  now.  It  is  only  necessary  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 
the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  in  Sicily  are  particularly 
suited  to  the  lemon,  and  that  by  generations  of  experience  the 

*  Published  in  "Garden  and  Field"  of  Adelaide,  South  Australia;  five 
chapters,  commencing  in  the  December,  1898,  number. 


206  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

Sicilian  has  learned  how  to  deal  with  lemons  better  than  any 
one  else.  It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  the  whole  of  Sicily 
is  adapted  to  lemon  culture,  or  that  the  lemons  grown  in  the 
various  districts  are  of  equal  quality. 

Mountain  and  Coastal  Lemons. — A  study  of  the  varying 
conditions  in  Sicily,  when  considered  in  relation  to  the  vary- 
ing conditions  in  South  Australia,  leads  to  valuable  lessons. 
Speaking  generally,  Sicilian  lemons  are  known  as  mountain- 
grown  lemons  and  coastal  or  plains  lemons.  This  distinction, 
however,  does  not  always  mean  that  the  lemons  were  grown 
among  the  mountains,  but  rather  that  they  were  grown  in  soil 
corresponding  to  the  soil  of  the  mountain  lemon  districts.  As 
a  rule  the  coastal  plains  consist  of  a  light  sandy  soil,  often 
with  a  gravelly  subsoil.  The  hillside  soils  are  stronger  and 
consist  of  a  well-drained  clay  loam,  and  it  is  on  these  soils  that 
lemons  of  the  best  quality  are  produced.  The  fruit  so  grown 
is  more  solid  and  more  juicy,  and  altogether  of  finer  quality. 
Speaking  of  this,  the  United  States  Consul  at  Messina,  Mr. 
Jones,  said:  "The  soil  has  a  great  influence  upon  the  maturing 
and  keeping  qualities  of  oranges  and  lemons.  The  fruit  ripens 
earlier  on  light  sandy  soil  than  on  clay  soil.  Fruit  grown  on 
light  sandy  soil  cannot  be  left  long  on  the  trees  without  losing 
quality  through  becoming  dry  and  spongy,  whereas  on  clay 
soils  it  is  sometimes  allowed  to  hang  from  December  or  Jan- 
uary until  April.  The  fruit  grown  on  sandy  soil  is  smaller, 
and  of  a  paler  yellow.  That  grown  on  the  clay  soils  is  larger 
and  keeps  better.  Trees  on  clay  soil  resist  drought  much 
better."  As  an  example,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  fruit 
grown  in  the  groves  to  the  southwest  of  Palermo  district  is 
much  more  highly  prized  than  that  from  the  groves  on  the 
northwest,  the  sole  difference  being  the  clay  and  sandy  char- 
acters of  the  soils.  "  Mountain  lemons,"  which  is  synonymous 
with  fruit  grown  on  loamy  clay  soil,  bring  as  much  as  one 
third  more  than  "  coast  fruit,"  which  is  grown  on  light  sandy 
soil.  The  superiority  is  always  attributed  to  the  soil  more 
than  to  the  elevation.  "Fruit  produced  on  the  plains  of 
Portello,  the  soil  of  which  is  clay,  brings  the  same  price  as 
that  grown  on  the  heights  of  Monreale,"  about  the  beauties  of 
which  and  the  wonderful  mosaics  of  the  Cathedral,  I  hope  to 
have  something  to  say  at  another  time. 


THE    SICILIAN    LEMON    INDUSTRY — CULTURE.  207 

Climatic  Conditions.— From  what  I  have  just  said  it  will 
be  gathered  that  the  lemon  lands  of  Sicily  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes — first  with  respect  to  soil,  and  second  with  respect 
to  altitude.  The  coastal  zone  embraces  the  narrow  coastal 
plains  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  valleys  up  to  1,000  or 
1,500  feet  above  sea-level.  The  mountain  region  includes  the 
higher  valleys  and  hills  from  1,500  to  about  3,000  feet  above 
sea-level.  Beyond  this  the  climate  is  too  moist,  and  the  frost 
too  severe  for  lemon  culture.  This  wide  range  of  altitude 
within  a  limited  area  is  an  important  factor  in  the  production 
and  marketing  of  lemons.  The  fruit  near  the  coast  ripens 
first,  and  the  lemon  harvests  succeed  one  another  as  one 
proceeds  into  the  interior.  It  will.be  readily  seen  that  it  is 
difficult  to  summarize  the  climatic  conditions  of  a  range  of 
country  such  as  I  have  indicated.  The  best  I  can  do  is  to  give 
the  range  of  temperature  of  Palermo,  which  is  on  the  north 
coast.  Ordinarily  the  thermometer  ranges  from  about  34° 
Fah.  in  winter  to  95°  Fah.  in  summer.  The  average  for  the 
year  is  about  70°  Fah.  Occasionally  it  rises  as  high  as  104° 
Fah.,  and  sinks  as  low  as  30°  Fah.  There  is  not,  however, 
much  difference  between  Palermo  and  Adelaide  in  temperature, 
but  the  climate  of  Palermo  is  more  humid  than  ours,  and  the 
contrasts  less  sudden.  The  hot  south  wind  of  Sicily  comes 
from  the  deserts  of  North  Africa,  but  it  has  to  travel  over  the 
moisture-laden  surface  of  the  Mediterranean,  so  that  when  it 
reaches  Sicily,  although  it  is  hot,  it  has  lost  the  parching 
power  of  our  north  wind,  fresh  from  the  almost  treeless  plains 
of  the  vast  interior  of  Australia. 

The  year  may  be  divided  into  a  wet  and  a  dry  period.  During 
the  winter,  or  from  the  end  of  September  to  April,  the  prevail- 
ing winds  are  strong  and  constant,  and  bring  a  large  amount 
of  moisture.  The  fall  during  the  six  months  named  averages 
22  inches,  and  the  average  for  the  year  is  between  25  and  30 
inches. 

SICILIAN  LEMON  CULTURE. 

The  methods  of  culture  of  the  lemon  in  Sicily  vary  more  or 
less  in  different  districts  under  different  conditions.  It  is 
impossible  to  describe  all  the  varying  details,  so  that  it  will 
be  necessary  for  the  reader  to  consider  my  remarks  as  the  pre- 
vailing conditions.  My  notes  are  the  result  of  careful  inquiry 


208  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

and  observation,  extending  from  the  coastal  region  well  up  into 
the  mountains,  and  I  have  verified  them  as  far  as  possible  by 
reference  to  the  scanty  literature  on  the  subject.  This  is  almost 
entirely  confined  to  more  or  less  brief  references  to  the  subject 
in  British  and  American  consular  reports.  The  most  complete 
account  of  Sicilian  lemon  culture  I  have  seen  is  that  by  Acting- 
Consul  de  Garston,  made  in  1895.  Some  of  the  statements  in 
some  of  these  reports  appear  to  me  to  be  a  little  misleading,  in 
consequence,  I  think,  of  the  writers'  not  being  familiar  with 
fruit  culture,  and  so  misunderstanding  the  information  given 
by  growers,  but  they  are  valuable  in  many  respects. 

The  Nursery. — For  convenience  and  clearness,  I  will  divide 
the  life  of  the  tree  into  two  periods.  These  are  clearly  marked, 
but  very  unequal  in  duration.  The  first  is  the  nursery  period, 
and  extends  over  from  five  to  six,  and  sometimes  seven  years. 
The  second  is  the  management  of  the  tree  in  the  lemon  grove. 

The  usual  care  is  taken  to  secure  a  suitable  plot  of  ground 
for  the  seed-bed,  but  I  did  not  find  the  practice  followed  by  our 
nurserymen  of  raising  seedlings  in  frames  to  be  in  operation. 
Formerly  young  trees  were  largely  raised  from  layers  or  cut- 
tings, but  this  practice  is  almost  discontinued,  because  the  trees 
are  considered  less  robust  and  more  subject  to  disease.  Up  to 
within  the  last  twenty  years  the  stocks  were  raised  from  lemon 
seed,  but  now  the  bitter  orange,  Citrus  bigaradia,  is  almost 
always  used.  I  think  it  is  called  Oedrangoli  amari  by  the 
Sicilian  growers.  The  dry  seed  from  this  stock  is,  I  believe, 
sold  at  from  1.50  lire  to  2.00  lire  per  kilogram  (a  kilo  is  about 
2.2  pounds,  so  that  the  seed  costs  roughly  8d.  per  p6und).  The 
bitter  orange  is  a  free,  vigorous  grower,  and  possesses  a  hardy 
constitution  not  subject  to  disease.  The  seed-bed,  having  been 
carefully  prepared  of  sandy  loam,  is  divided  into  rectangular 
plots,  each  surrounded  by  a  raised  border  or  bank,  so  arranged 
that  water  can  be  run  into  each  for  irrigation  purposes  and  the 
plot  flooded.  About  a  quart  of  orange-pips  are  sown  on  a  plot 
about  ten  feet  by  two  feet,  and  are  covered  with  about  one  inch 
of  sandy  soil.  The  pips  are  planted  in  spring  ( March  or  April ) , 
and  are  frequently  soaked  in  water  before  sowing.  When  sown, 
the  plot  is  well  watered,  and  it  is  kept  moist  during  the  whole 
of  the  summer  until  the  first  autumn  rains,  by  watering  every 
four  days  at  least.  The  young  plants  show  in  about  two 


THE    SICILIAN    LEMON   INDUSTRY — CULTURE.  209 

months,  and  are  set  out  in  the  nursery  in  the  following  spring, 
when  about  eighteen  inches  high. 

Method  of  Culture. — The  amount  of  labor  involved  in  rais- 
ing a  lemon  tree  and  bringing  it  into  bearing  appears  to  be 
many  times  greater  than  with  us,  and  I  think  we  expect  to 
obtain  crops  two  or  three  years  earlier  than  does  the  Sicilian, 
who  does  not  bud  his  stocks  until  the  fourth  or  fifth  year,  and 
does  not  expect  them  to  bear  until  they  are  eight  years  old. 
In  this  connection  it  should  also  be  mentioned,  that  if  he  waits 
three  years  longer  he  expects  his  trees  to  give  him  a  crop  for 
from  forty  to  one  hundred  years.  It  is  stated  that  in  some 
cases  both  orange  and  lemon  trees  in  Sicily  live  to  be  two 
hundred  years  old.  In  thinking  over  this  I  am  led  to  ask,  Do 
we  force  our  trees  too  much?  Were  the  stocks  used  on  our  old 
trees  of  a  poor  quality?  Or  why  do  our  old  trees  cease  to  pro- 
duce good  fruit  and  die  so  much  earlier  than  those  of  Sicily? 
I  do  not  know,  but  it  may  be  worth  considering  these  questions. 
The  nursery  is  very  carefully  chosen,  the  two  main  consider- 
ations being  the  soil  and  the  sunny  aspect.  After  being 
thoroughly  well  worked  it  is  divided  into  small  plots,  each  with 
a  raised  mound  of  soil.  These  plots  are  not  of  uniform  size. 
In  some  districts  what  is  called  the  "Mettere  a  Casella"  (plant- 
ing in  a  cell)  system  is  adopted.  In  this  system  the  nursery  is 
divided  into  small  cells  or  plots  about  eighteen  inches  square, 
and  a  year-old  seedling,  generally  about  eighteen  inches  high, 
is  planted  in  each  corner  of  the  cell.  Each  plant  is  tied  to  a 
straight  stick,  and  so  made  to  grow  as  straight  as  possible.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  third  year  alternate  plants  are  taken  out 
and  replanted.  This  is  called  planting  in  "piantonaio."  In 
the  fifth  year  the  stocks  are  usually  budded.  I  was  struck 
with  the  fine,  large,  tall,  straight  saplings  which  the  stocks 
formed  in  their  fifth  year. 

In  other  districts  a  somewhat  different  method  is  followed. 
The  plots  are  much  larger.  Each  one  is  surrounded  by  a 
mound  of  soil,  and  is  placed  end  on  to  an  irrigation  channel,  so 
arranged  that  the  water  can  be  run  onto  the  plots  one  after  the 
other  for  the  frequent  irrigations.  In  these  plots  the  seedlings 
are  set  out  at  a  distance  of  not  less  than  eighteen  inches.  The 
plants  are  carefully  tended  and  watered  every  week  during  the 
first  year,  and  every  second  week  afterwards.  In  the  fifth  year 
14c 


UNIVERSITY 


210  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

they  are  tall,  well-grown  trees  of,  say,  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
are  then  grafted  or  budded.  Sometimes  this  is  done  in  the 
nursery,  and  sometimes  the  saplings  are  planted  out  in  their 
permanent  position  first.  In  either  case  the  bud  or  graft  is 
made  about  four  feet  from  the  ground.  The  methods  followed 
are  in  no  important  point  different  from  those  followed  here. 
The  most  frequent  practice  is  to  use  the  shield-bud  method  in 
early  summer,  and  when  this  fails,  to  bud  again  in  autumn, 
and  allow  the  bud  to  remain  dormant  until  spring. 

The  land  for  the  lemon  grove  is  well  prepared,  and  in  the 
hot  months  of  July  and  August  the  "  formelle,"  or  holes  for 
planting,  are  dug  about  three  feet  deep,  and  in  the  late  autumn, 
or  early  spring,  the  saplings  are  removed  from  the  nursery  and 
planted  out.  Before  planting,  the  trees  are  often  made  to 
undergo  a  peculiar  treatment,  called  the  "  Ordeal  of  Darkness" 
They  are  dug  up  from  the  nursery  and  put  in  wicker  baskets 
filled  with  loam  and  conveyed  to  a  dark  room,  where  they  are 
kept  away  from  the  light  for  about  fifteen  days.  They  are  then 
exposed  to  half-light  for  five  days,  and  then  placed  in  an  ex- 
posed, but  shady  spot,  for  a  month.  Should  a  tree  show  signs  of 
sickness  it  is  again  conveyed  to  the  dark  room  for  eight  or  ten 
days  more.  It  is  said  that  trees  subjected  to  this  ordeal  seldom, 
if  ever,  fail  to  take  speedy  root  and  thrive.  The  trees  are 
planted  at  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  apart,  and  the  rows  are 
placed  as  nearly  north  and  south  as  can  be  managed. 

How  Trees  are  Trained.— The  system  of  training  the  trees 
with  a  high,  straight  stem,  and  planting  closely  together,  ren- 
ders it  necessary  to  prune  trees  much  more  than  is  done  in 
South  Australia.  The  trees  meet  overhead,  but  one  can  walk 
upright  under  the  main  branches.  Sunlight  and  a  free  circu- 
lation of  air  are  essential  to  the  lemon,  therefore  the  trees  are 
kept  open  by  systematic  pruning  and  trimming,  so  that  in  an 
old  grove  there  is  an  even  distribution  of  fruit  over  the  whole 
area. 

Annual  Crops  Between  Trees.— It  is  the  custom  to  grow 
cereals,  vegetables,  peas,  beans,  lupines,  and  other  crops 
between  the  trees  for  some  years.  Quite  frequently,  too,  vines 
or  cotton  plants  are  grown  in  the  young  lemon  groves.  Of 
course,  such  groves  receive  much  hand  cultivation,  regular 
manuring,  and  liberal  cultivation.  When  the  development  of 


THE    SICILIAN    LEMON   INDUSTRY — CULTURE. 


211 


the  lemon  trees  prevents  the  further  cultivation  of   annual 
crops,  the  work  assumes  a  regular  character. 

Irrigation. — Wherever  possible,  irrigation  takes  place  at 
regular  intervals  through  the  summer  months.  In  the  moun- 
tains this  is  done  by  gravitation  from  the  mountain  streams, 
and  the  irrigation  ditches  are  always  a  prominent  feature  in  the 
lemon  grove.  Usually  each  tree  stands  in  the  center  of  a  basin, 
formed  by  a  small 
mound  of  soil,  and 
into  this  basin  the 
water  is  run  at  in- 
tervals. On  the 
lower  lands  I  found 
artificial  means  of 
raising  water  were 
used,  and  I  was 
struck  with  the  ex- 
tent and  complete- 
'ness  of  the  steam 
pumping  plants  in 
some  of  the  larger 
plantations.  I 
think  there  must 
have  been  many 
miles  of  concrete 
channels.  These 
channels  were 
sometimes  five  or 
six  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  ground, 
and  were  carried  on 

Concrete     walls          Sicilian  lemon  tree,  showing  method  of  pruning. 

about     eighteen 

inches  thick.  When  it  was  necessary  to  cross  one  of  the  road- 
ways which  divided  the  grove  into  regular  blocks  for  conven- 
ience of  gathering  the  crop,  and  other  work,  an  earthenware 
inverted  siphon  was  used,  carrying  the  water  under  the  road 
and  up  the  other  side.  Except  for  the  siphons,  these  channels 
reminded  one  of  the  old  Roman  aqueducts  on  a  small  scale. 
The  first  irrigation  is  given  in  June,  when  the  fruit  from  the 


212  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

early  bloom  are  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  the  trees  are  still  in  bloom. 
In  dry  districts  perhaps  nine  other  waterings  will  be  given. 

Pruning  and  Trimming. — In  a  former  article,  in  speaking 
of  the  training  of  lemon  trees  in  Sicily,  I  used  two  terms — 
"pruning"  and  " trimming."  These  must  be  explained,  or 
they  may  lead  to  misunderstanding. 

By  trimming  ("rimondaments")  is  meant  the  removal  of  all 
dry  twigs,  suckers,  water  shoots,  stunted  or  rank  growth,  and 


Sicilian  lemon  trees  planted  on  side  hills. 

twigs  which  have  borne  and  become  exhausted.  This  is  done 
in  the  winter,  and  should  be  carefully  attended  to  every  year. 

In  addition  to  this  about  every  three  years  the  trees  are 
gone  over  more  thoroughly,  and  thinned  out  after  the  main 
crop  is  gathered.  This  is  called  pruning,  and  should  not  be 
required  to  any  great  extent  if  the  trimming  has  been  properly 
done.  The  object  is  to  maintain  an  open  tree  into  which  light 
and  air  can  freely  penetrate  as  a  preventive  of  disease  and  so 
that  the  fruit  may  be  evenly  distributed  on  the  inner  as  well 
as  the  outer  branches. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  the  Sicilian  lemon  trees  are 
pruned  with  open  centers,  for  that  would  be  quite  misleading. 


THE    SICILIAN    LEMON    INDUSTRY — CULTURE.  213 

The  trees  are  usually  trained  with  a  main  trunk  stem,  from 
which  the  branches  put  out  at  irregular  intervals.  The  pruning 
simply  gives  an  airy,  open-branched  tree,  which  is  necessary, 
because  the  trees  are  planted  so  closely  together — from  twelve 
to  sixteen  feet — that  the  branches  meet  and  interlace,  so  that 
if  the  tops  were  not  kept  open  light  and  air  would  be  excluded. 
Again,  allowing  the  trees  to  grow  into  one  another  it  becomes 
necessary  to  cut  away  all  the  lower  limbs  and  train  the  trees 
with  high  trunks,  in  order  that  the  workmen  and  pickers  may 
pass  beneath.  In  giving  these  reasons  I  am  in  a  measure 
theorizing,  because  the  Sicilian  does  not  know  why  he  does 
this  or  many  other  things,  except  that  his  father  and  grand- 
father did  the  same.  I  did  find  a  few  groves  where  the  trees 
were  planted  at  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  feet  apart,  and  then 
they  were  allowed  to  assume  much  the  same  shape  as  those  to 
be  seen  in  the  Payneham  and  Harden  orangeries.  This  was 
particularly  noticeable  in  a  large  orangery  of  about  one  hun- 
dred acres  that  I  visited  about  six  miles  from  Palermo,  in 
connection  with  the  Villa  Elleanora  del  Principe  di  Scalea. 
The  tendency  is  to  give  more  room  to  the  orange  trees  than  to 
the  lemon  trees. 

The  lemon  groves  are  generally  surrounded  with  stone  walls 
about  five  feet  high,  but  often  eight  or  nine  feet  high.  The 
latter  I  gather  were  originally  built  as  a  protection  to  the 
people  in  the  lawless  condition  of  the  country.  This  idea  is 
also  seen  in  the  character  of  the  buildings.  At  present  they 
serve  as  protection  from  winds.  I  found  them  a  nuisance,  for 
they  often  necessitated  my  stopping  my  driver  and  going  inside, 
when  had  the  walls  been  low,  I  could  have  satisfied  myself  by 
looking  over. 

Cultivation  and  Fertilization.— The  care  taken  of  Sicilian 
lemon  groves  varies  as  greatly  as  does  the  attention  given  to 
fruit  trees  in  all  countries  I  have  visited.  As  a  rule,  however, 
they  are  generally  well  cared  for,  and  an  immense  amount  of 
labor  is  expended  on  them.  I  was  informed  that  notwith- 
standing the  low  wages  of  from  Is.  to  2s.  a  day  for  men,  the 
average  cost  of  working  a  lemon  grove  is  not  less  than  650  lire 
per  hectare.  This  is  equal  to  about  £10  an  acre,  and  I  was 
informed  that  near  Catania  the  expense  was  sometimes  three 
times  that. 


214  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

The  soil  is  dug  or  hoed  from  three  to  five  times  a  year.  The 
Sicilian  hoe  is  like  a  small  shovel  on  a  bent  handle.  In 
January  or  February  it  is  dug  fairly  deep,  and  the  trees  are 
manured.  In  April  the  soil  is  stirred  again,  and  the  "conche," 
or  embanked  basins,  are  formed.  In  June  it  is  dug  again  for 
weeding.  Lemon  trees  are  manured  every  year  in  some  groves, 
every  other  year  in  others,  and  every  third  year  in  perhaps  the 
majority.  The  decomposed  droppings  of  different  animals, 
decayed  litter  and  leaves,  bones,  ashes,  etc.,  are  used  as  they 
are  available,  and  in  some  cases  artificial  manures  are  applied. 

A  year  after  the  tree  is  planted  the  soil  is  cleared  away 
around  the  base,  commencing  at  a  distance  of  perhaps  two  feet 
and  to  a  depth  of  a  foot,  or  fifteen  inches,  and  into  the  trench 
are  emptied  two  baskets  of  compost,  weighing  perhaps  forty  or 
fifty  pounds.  The  trench  is  then  filled  up,  and  the  earth 
placed  to  form  a  mound  around  the  tree.  A  similar  method 
is  followed  in  applying  manure  to  old  trees,  but  the  trench  is 
made  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  base,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  tree.  For  old  trees,  from  eighty  to  ninety  pounds  of 
compost  are  applied  to  each  tree.  Manure  is  best  applied  in 
winter  or  in  early  spring.  Autumn  manuring  is  considered  to 
unfavorably  affect  the  quality  of  the  lemons. 

In  driving  through  the  country,  and  in  more  closely  inspect- 
ing many  groves  of  varying  areas  in  different  localities,  no  fact 
more  strongly  impressed  me  than  the  very  striking  difference 
in  the  healthiness,  cleanliness,  and  freedom  from  disease  of 
orchards  and  trees,  often  on  adjoining  properties.  When  a 
grower,  from  want  of  capital,  laziness,  or  bad  management, 
does  not  irrigate,  manure,  and  cultivate  his  grove,  the  trees 
tell  even  the  passer-by  of  the  neglect.  The  generality  of  the 
lemon  groves  are  well  cared  for,  the  trees  are  healthy  and  the 
fruit  clean.  In  some  localities  I  found  the  lemon  round  scale 
fairly  frequent,  but  no  systematic  treatment  with  insecticides 
is  practiced. 

CROPS. 

I  have  already  referred  to  the  succession  of  crops,  and  to 
the  fact  that  as  the  lemon  is  cultivated  over  a  considerable 
range  of  climate,  the  lemon  harvest  continues  for  many 
months.  It  was  pointed  out  that  the  April  blossoms  produced 
a  crop  of  lemons  in  October,  those  of  May  in  November  and 


THE   SICILIAN   LEMON    INDUSTRY CROPS.  215 

December  in  any  given  locality.  The  October  fruit  is  known 
as  "primo-fiore,"  or  choice  fruit;  and  that  ripening  in  Novem- 
ber and  December  is  nearly  as  good.  The  fruit  of  these  three 
months  constitutes  the  most  abundant  crops  as  well  as  the 
best  fruit.  The  June  blossoms  produce  fruit  which  ripens  in 
January  and  February,  and  is  of  second  quality.  The  July 
blossoms  usually  fall  off,  and  little  notice  is  taken  of  them. 
Blossoms  in  August  give  fruit  in  March,  which  is  of  poor 
quality;  while  September  blooms  give  fair  quality  lemons, 
which  are  gathered  in  April  and  May,  and  are  very  valuable 
on  account  of  the  season.  Trees  which  blossom  in  October, 
November,  and  December  produce  what  are  known  as 
bastards,  or  poor  quality  lemons,  which  are  gathered  in  June, 
July,  and  August. 

The  Lemon  Harvest. — The  grower  bases  his  calculations 
on  the  October  to  December  crop,  and  the  first  gathering  of 
the  lemon  harvest  is  made  in  October.  Many  of  the  lemons  at 
this  time  are  not  ripe,  and  care  is  taken  to  pick  only  those 
which  are  fully  three  inches  in  diameter.  All  under  that  size 
are  left  for  the  November  gathering.  Practiced  gatherers 
gauge  the  fruit  with  the  thumb  and  second  finger.  This  first 
crop  is  the  most  valuable,  and  is  very  carefully  selected  and 
packed  for  immediate  shipment. 

The  second  gathering  takes  place  in  November,  and  is  as 
good  as  that  of  October.  If  properly  gathered,  selected,  and 
packed,  it  will  keep  for  months.  The  fruit  is  lighter  in  color 
and  harder  to  the  touch  than  the  October  gathering.  The 
pickers  gather  all  fruit  which  is  ripe,  whatever  its  size,  and  all 
fruit  which  has  reached  the  standard  size,  whether  ripe  or  not. 
The  first  quality  fruit  not  immediately  salable  is  often  put 
away  in  cases  until  March,  when  it  is  repacked  and  will  keep 
for  some  time.  All  small  or  damaged  fruit  is  used  for  making 
oil  of  lemon,  citric  acid,  or  candied  lemon  peel,  which  indus- 
tries will  be  described  farther  on.  The  November  fruit  is 
especially  valuable  for  essences,  citric  acid,  and  lemon  juice. 
In  a  well-cared-for  lemon  grove  I  was  informed  that  from 
three  fourths  to  seven  eighths  of  the  fruit  was  suitable  for 
shipment,  the  rest  being  used  for  essences,  etc. 

The  fruit  gathered  in  December  on  the  plains  and  lower 
lands  near  Palermo,  is  inferior  to  that  of  November,  only 


216  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

about  five  eighths  being  suitable  for  export,  the  balance  being 
used  for  peel  and  essences. 

The  January  fruit  is  of  still  less  value,  only  three  eighths 

.  being  fit  for  packing.     The  fruit  gathered  at  this  time  is  fully 

ripe   and   quite   yellow.     The   inferior   fruit   of  this   month's 

gathering   is   largely   cut   in   halves,   packed   in    brine,   and 

exported  for  leinon-peel  making. 

The  remains  of  the  crop  are  gathered  in  February,  and  is 
called  "old  fruit."  It  is  of  inferior  quality.  Nothing  is  now 
left  on  the  tree  except  the  green  fruit  from  the  August  blos- 
soms. Fully  three  fourths  of  the  February  gathering  is  used 
for  essence,  acid,  and  peel. 

Out-of- Season  Crops.— I  was  much  struck  with  what  are 
called  out-of-season,  or  extraordinary,  crops.  In  one  grove  I 
visited,  one  half  was  bearing  a  fine  crop  of  lemons  ready  for 
the  second  gathering.  On  the  other  half  there  was  hardly  a 
ripe  lemon,  but  the  trees  were  carrying  a  good  crop  of  fruit 
about  one  fourth  grown.  I  found  that  it  was  a  fairly  common 
practice  to  force  the  trees  into  bearing  such  crops.  Sometimes 
peculiar  climatic  conditions  will  do  it,  but  usually  it  is  the 
result  of  special  cultivation  and  irrigation.  If  trees  are 
deprived  of  irrigation  during  the  hot  months  of  July  and 
August,  and  then  abundantly  watered  in  September,  a  prolific 
amount  of  blossom  will  generally  result,  producing  a  valuable 
May  crop.  This  cannot  be  done  every  year,  for  the  tree  suffers 
from  the  privation  mentioned,  and  takes  a  season  to  recover 
its  normal  condition.  Still,  the  May  fruit  being  of  fairly  good 
quality  and  valuable  on  account  of  the  demand,  realizing  as 
much  as  30s.  and  40s.  for  one  thousand  lemons,  the  temptation 
to  force  crops  is  considerable,  the  price  compensating  for  the 
scanty  succeeding  crop. 

GATHERING,  PACKING,  AND  STORING  LEMONS. 

In  the  preceding  pages  I  have  dealt  at  considerable  length 
with  the  general  features  of  the  cultivation  of  the  lemon  tree 
in  order  to  produce  the  splendid  fruit  for  which  Sicily  is  so 
famous.  So  important  is  this  industry  that  the  British  Consul 
at  Rome  says  that  four  fifths  of  the  total  lemon  and  orange 
trade  of  Italy  is  confined  to  the  Island  of  Sicily.  The  magni- 
tude of  the  trade,  nearly  the  half  of  which  was,  until  a  few 


THE   SICILIAN   LEMON    INDUSTRY— GATHERING,   ETC.  217 

years  since,  with  the  United  States,  is  due  to  the  inherent 
quality  of  the  fruit,  owing  to  the  peculiarly  favorable  climate, 
the  care  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  the  tree,  and  the  skill  and 
care  of  the  Sicilian  in  handling  the  fruit.  I  have  often  been 
asked  how  the  lemons  are  cured  in  Sicily  in  order  to  keep  so 
long  and  well.  People  can  hardly  realize  the  truth  that,  in 
the  sense  understood  by  the  questioners,  they  are  hardly  cured 
at  all.  . 

A  Succession  of  Crops.— All  Sicilian  lemons  will  not  keep. 
Lemon  trees  bear  a  series  of  crops,  there  being,  however,  a 
main  crop  of  the  finest  and  best  quality  fruit.  It  is  the  best  of 
this  crop  only  that  will  keep  well  and  long. 

I  have  described  how  the  lemon  is  grown  on  varied  series  of 
soils  and  at  different  altitudes,  from  sea-level  to  3,000  feet  up 
the  mountainous  interior  of  the  island.  As  the  main  crop 
ripens  on  the  sea  coast  from  October  to  December,  and  the 
same  crop  continues  to  mature  later  and  later  as  we  ascend  the 
mountains,  I  may  state  that  the  main  crop  is  ripening  in 
different  districts  from  October  to  February.  Then  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  good  fruit  will  hang  on  the  trees  without 
serious  k>ss  of  quality  for  three  months,  so  that  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  chief  lemon  harvest  may  be  .extended  from 
October  to  May.  It  is,  however,  not  considered  good,  for  either 
the  fruit  or  the  trees,  to  allow  the  lemons  to  hang  too  long, 
because  the  fruit  will  keep  better  if  properly  packed  and  stored. 
In  this  connection  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  weather 
during  all  these  months  is  cool,  and  that  is,  next  to  care  in 
picking  and  handling,  the  most  essential  condition  for  success 
in  keeping  lemons — or  indeed  any  fruit. 

Keeping   Qualities   Depend    on   Soil,  etc. — I  must  not 

omit  to  mention  that  the  keeping  qualities  of  lemons  depend  a 
good  deal  on  the  soil  and  situation  in  which  they  are  grown. 
Lemons  grown  on  light,  sandy  soil  deteriorate  quickly.  They 
get  dry  and  spongy,  and  will  not  stand  shipment  well.  On 
the  other  hand,  lemons  grown  in  loamy  clay,  or  loam  with 
well-drained  clay  subsoils,  such  as  predominate  in  the  moun- 
tainous lemon  districts,  keep  much  better.  So  great  is  this 
influence  that  lemons  grown  in  these  soils  sell  at  one  third 
higher  price  than  those  grown  on  the  sandy  land.  "  Moun- 
tain," i.  e.y  fruit  grown  on  the  loamy  soils  with  clay  subsoil,  is 


218  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

firmer  and  keeps  better.  Fruit  dealers  mark  the  best  fruit 
"M,"  meaning  "Mountain."  Here  is  a  sample  quotation, 
which  indicates  the  difference  in  price  of  the  different  grades: 
"Mountain,"  25  to  50  lire  per  1,000;  "  Hilly,"  21  to  27  lire  per 
1,000;  "Plains,"  17  lire  per  1,000.  I  may,  in  this  connection, 
here  repeat  that  the  ideal  situation  for  a  lemon  grove  is  in 
"deep  loamy  clay  land,  well  drained,  open,  and  exposed  to  the 
rays  of  the  sun  all  the  year,  trees  planted  in  rows  running 
north  and  south,  sheltered  from  strong  winds  and  frosts, 
water  always  available." 

How  Lemons  are  Handled. — I  was  fortunate  in  being  in 
Sicily  during  the  gathering  of  the  main  crop,  and  therefore 
saw  the  lemons  at  their  best.  I  knew  care  was  taken  in 
handling  the  fruit,  but  I  was  hardly  prepared  to  find  how 
much.  In  connection  with  many  cultural  operations  the  use 
of  such  implements  as  the  Planet  cultivators,  in  the  hands  of 
intelligent  Australian  workmen,  and  drawn  by  our  horses, 
will  more  than  compensate  for  the  cheap  labor  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean; but  when  it  comes  to  handling  fruit,  the  cost  of  labor 
is  simply  prohibitive  of  the  same  care  and  attention.  The 
wages  paid  are,  for  men  Is.  3d.  to  Is.  lOd.  a  day,  for  women  3d. 
to  6d.  The  Sicilian  handles  lemons  as  gently  as  eggs,  from 
custom,  and  he  does  it  quickly.  But  let  me  describe  what  I 
saw  of  the  picking  and  handling  of  lemons  for  export.  I 
could  not  follow  the  one  parcel  of  fruit;  but  as  I  saw  each 
operation  repeated,  I  think  my  description  is  in  every  general 
particular  correct. 

Picking. — The  picking  is  done  by  men,  women,  and  girls. 
The  pickers  have  small  wicker  baskets,  holding  from  one  and 
a  half  to  two  gallons,  and  lined  with  soft  canvas  like  bran 
bagging,  in  the  form  of  a  bag  hardly  resting  on  the  bottom. 
They  pick  the  lemons  with  the  fingers,  breaking  off  from  one 
to  three  inches  of  the  twig  with  the  lemon.  In  going  over  the 
trees  they  take — (1st)  All  lemons,  no  matter  how  green,  which 
are  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  three  and  one  half  ounces  in 
weight  or  over.  The  pickers  learn  to  judge  the  size  and  weight 
with  wonderful  accuracy,  using  the  thumb  and  finger  as  a 
gauge.  (2d)  All  lemons  which  are  turning  yellow,  whether 
they  reach  the  standard  or  not. 


THE    SICILIAN    LEMON   INDUSTRY — GATHERING,    ETC.         219 

Snipping  and  First  Grading.— The  pickers  take  their 
baskets  to  the  roadways,  where  the  foreman  sits  with  several 
women  and  a  number  of  baskets  of  about  a  bushel  capacity 
lined  with  canvas.  The  lemons  are  taken  one  by  one  from  the 
pickers'  baskets,  and  the  stem  is  snipped  off  close  with  the  same 
pattern  of  snips  used  by  lemon-gatherers  in  California  and 
Mildura.  If  apparently  perfect,  and  of  large  size,  it  goes  into 
No.  1  basket,  if  perfect  but  smaller  into  No.  2,  and  so  on,  about 
four  grades  being  made.  The  defective  or  lower  quality  fruit 
goes  off  at  once,  and  is  used  for  extracting  oil  of  lemon,  or 
making  citric  acid  or  lemon  peel. 

Drying. — The  good  fruit  of  first  or  second  grade  is.  at  once 
taken  to  the  fruit  house,  where  it  is  spread  out  on  the  floor  (if 
the  floor  be  stone,  mats  are  spread  over  it).  The  depth  and 
length  of  time  they  remain  depend  on  circumstances.  The 
object  is  to  allow  the  moisture  to  evaporate  from  the  skin,  but 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  lemons  in  the  bottom  layer  do  not 
heat.  They  may  be  piled  from  one  to  three  feet,  and  remain 
from  twenty-four  hours  up  to  six  days. 

Sorting  and  Wrapping  for  Market. — When  dry,  the 
lemons  are  carefully  sorted  over,  all  defective  fruit  being  put 
aside.  The  sound  lemons  are  wrapped  in  tissue  paper,  carefully 
packed  in  boxes,  and  taken  to  the  warehouse  of  the  merchants, 
who  may  either  store  the  fruit  or  ship  it. 

Storing  Lemons. — If  fruit  is  to  be  stored  it  is  kept  in  cool 
stores,  and  carefully  gone  over  every  three  weeks.  Each  lemon 
is  unwrapped,  examined,  and  if  sound  rewrapped  and  put  back, 
but  if  it  shows  any  signs  of  not  keeping  it  is  taken  away.  I 
believe  lemons  are  also  stored  in  dark  underground  grottos  or 
cellars  without  being  wrapped  and  cased,  but  I  did  not  see  one. 
When  this  method  is  adopted,  I  understand  the  fruit  is  gone 
over  every  week  or  two,  so  that,  put  into  a  sentence,  the  art  of 
preserving  lemons  in  Sicily  is  to  handle  them  frequently  with 
care,  and  remove  all  showing  signs  of  decay. 

Packing  for  Export.— I  had  much  difficulty  in  gratifying 
my  determination  to  see  the  operation  of  packing  for  shipment. 
This  was  in  marked  contrast  to  the  freedom  I  was  allowed  in 
visiting  the  orchards  and  watching  all  operations  there,  in- 
cluding the  drying  and  packing  for  market.  I  felt  that  the 


220  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

excuses  made  were  not  genuine,  and  at  Palermo  waited  a  full 
week  over  my  time  for  departure  in  order  to  break  down  the 
opposition  which  had  hitherto  baffled  me.  At  length  I  obtained 
free  entry  to  several  packing-houses  and  was  able  to  take  several 
photographs  of  the  well-built,  well-lighted,  beautifully  clean, 
conveniently  arranged  packing  rooms  of  Sefior  B.  Mercadante. 
I  should  say  that  I  was  greatly  indebted  to  this  courteous 
gentleman  for  many  kindnesses  and  much  information.  At 
the  time  of  my  visit  (beginning  of  January),  the  best  lemons 
were  coming  from  the  interior,  although  I  saw  splendid  fruit 
being  gathered  in  the  hills  about  ten  miles  from  Palermo. 
The  price  quoted  then  was  7s.  a  case  of  300,  C.  I.  F.  to  New 
York.  'The  price  paid  in  Palermo  for  mountain  lemons,  he 
said,  varied  from  7s.  to  16s.  per  1,080.  Mr.  A.  P.  Brown,  the 
representative  of  the  Bronte  estates,  and  manager  of  the  Palermo 
ice  works,  Mr.  Seymour,  the  American  Consul,  and  Mr.  Weiner, 
the  genial  proprietor  of  the  Hotel  de  France,  also  assisted  me 
greatly.  A  drive  and  picnic  with  the  latter  to  his  wine  cellars 
and  chateau  at  Pareo,  in  the  mountains,  is  one  of  the  most 
pleasant  of  my  recollections. 

I  am,  of  course,  all  through  describing  the  preparation  of 
the  best  lemons  which  have  made  the  name  of  Sicily  famous. 
When  lemons  are  to  be  exported  they  are  taken  either  direct 
from  the  lemon  groves,  or  from  the  stores,  as  described,  to  the 
packing-houses.  Here  the  boxes  are  opened,  the  lemons 
unwrapped  and  carefully  examined.  The  sorters  are  experts. 
A  lemon  with  a  blemish  which  could  not  be  distinguished 
except  as  the  result  of  continued  practice,  is  at  once  detected 
and  put  aside.  The  fruit  is  regraded,  because  from  the  time 
of  gathering  it  has  shrunk  considerably. 

The  work  is  thus  divided:  (1st)  Girls  unpack  and  unwrap 
the  lemons,  putting  them  into  lined  baskets;  (2d)  The  expe- 
rienced graders  (men)  sort  them,  putting  them  into  other 
baskets;  (3d)  Another  set  of  girls  wrap  them  in  fresh  tissue 
paper;  (4th)  Boys  carry  the  baskets  to  the  packers;  (5th)  Ex- 
pert packers  pack  them  into  the  various  sized  boxes  required 
by  the  different  markets.  This  packing  is  one  of  the  smartest 
and  cleverest  things  I  have  seen  in  connection  with  any  branch 
of  the  fruit  industry.  The  fruit  is  handled  with  particular 
care,  but  is  packed  very  closely.  As  the  box  becomes  full  it  is 
noticed  that  the  fruit  in  the  middle  is  higher  than  at  the  sides, 


THE   SICILIAN    LEMON    INDUSTRY — GATHERING,    ETC.  221 

and  when  tne  last  layer  of  lemons  is  put  on,  the  outside  fruit 
stands  about  half  an  inch  above  the  sides  of  the  box,  but  the 
middle  is  fully  three  inches  above.  The  boxes  are  made  of 
very  thin  beech  wood,  and  in  order  to  make  them  hold  together 
wooden  hoops  are  nailed  over.  It  requires  much  skill  to 
fasten  down  the  lids,  for  it  involves  the  bending  of  the  cover, 
and  the  elasticity  of  the  wood  is  sufficient  to  occasionally 
.draw  out  the  nails.  When  nailed  down  this  elasticity  pre- 
vents any  movement  of  the  fruit,  and  allows  for  shrinkage, 
which  is,  however,  not  great  after  the  lemons  have  been 


Assorting  and  packing  lemons  in  Sicily,  showing  lined  baskets  used  for  the  purpose. 

stored.  Lemons  cut  in  November  and  packed  three  hundred 
in  a  box  will  by  February  have  shrunk  so  that  three  hundred 
and  sixty  will  pack  into  the  same  box.  It  is  this  November 
crop  (ripening  in  November  near  the  coast,  and  on  to  Febru- 
ary on  the  mountains)  which  keeps  the  best,  so  that  shipments 
of  it  are  frequently  made  to  New  York  up  to  May.  It  is  this 
crop,  but  not  usually  the  first  grade  of  it,  which  is  sent  to 
Australia. 

The  subject  dealt  with  in  this  chapter  is  of  considerable 
importance,  and  I  regret  that  my  inquiries  have  not  enabled 
me  to  give  readers  a  simple,  cheap  recipe  for  storing  lemons 


222  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

from  September  to  January  in  South  Australia.  It' can  be  done 
easily  enough  with  the  aid  of  cool  chambers,  and  provided 
lemons  of  the  desired  quality  are  plentiful  and  cheap,  it  should 
pay  to  do  so.  If  my  conclusions  that  our  lemon  country  will 
yet  be  found  in  the  hills,  or  southeast  be  correct,  it  may  be  that 
grottos  may  be  tunneled  into  the  hills  where  the  fruit  can  be 
kept  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  60°  Fah.  until  midsummer. 
In  the  cool  chambers  they  should  be  kept  at  40°  to  45°  Fah. 

MANUFACTURED  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  LEMON. 

Lemon  Juice. — There  are  two  qualities,  "agro  crudo,"  which 
is  the  natural  juice  of  the  lemon,  and  "agro  eotto,"  which  is 
the  juice  in  concentrated  form,  and  keeps  much  better  than  the 
other.  The  juice  after  being  pressed  from  the  poorer  quality 
]emons  is  left  to  settle  for  a  time.  It  is  then  boiled  in  large 
tinned  copper  pans  one  third  full.  While  boiling  it  is  fre- 
quently stirred  with  an  iron  rod  having  the  knob  end  wrapped 
in  canvas  to  prevent  it  damaging  the  bottom  of  the  copper,  and 
to  keep  the  sediment  from  sticking.  As  the  quantity  decreases 
the  coppers  are  replenished  from  supplementary  coppers,  kept 
hot  for  the  purpose,  so  that  the  process  of  evaporation  shall  not 
be  checked.  When  the  required  density  is  attained  it  is  poured 
into  vats  to  cool,  and  is  finally  drawn  off  into  casks  for  export. 
The  original  volume  is  reduced  by  this  process  to  about  one 
eighth,  and  the  concentrated  liquid  should  contain  about  thirty 
per  cent  of  citric  acid. 

Citrate  of  Lime. — Until  recently  the  manufacture  of  citric 
acid  was  almost  neglected  in  Sicily;  but  of  late  years  the 
industry  has  been  developed  to  a  greater  extent.  Still  most  of 
the  lemon  juice  is  either  sent  away  in  the  concentrated  form 
above  described,  or  is  changed  into  citrate  of  lime,  this  sub- 
stance being  readily  made  and  is  easily  carried.  The  value  of 
the  citrate  depends  largely  on  the  purity  of  the  chalk  employed. 
"The  concentrated  juice  is  first  clarified  with  whites  of  eggs, 
and  warmed.  It  is  then  drawn  off  and  filtered  into  tinned 
boilers,  in  which  it  is  heated  nearly  to  boiling  point  and 
thoroughly  saturated  with  finely  powdered  chalk,  which  is 
added  gradually  to  the  liquid  while  it  is  being  continuously 
stirred  until  the  effervescence  caused  by  the  admixture  of  the 


MANUFACTURED    PRODUCTS   OF   THE    LEMON.  223 

carbonate  of  lime  has  ceased,  when  the  deposit  of  citrate  will 
be  approximately  complete;  the  remaining  residue  of  acid  citrate 
is  reduced  with  lime  milk.  The  liquid  is  now  drawn  off,  and 
the  solid,  insoluble  citrate  is  compressed  and  dried." 

Oil  of  Lemon. — Everyone  is  familiar  with  "essence  of  lemon," 
but  comparatively  few  know  that  the  "essence"  is  really  spirits 
of  wine,  in  which  is  dissolved  a  greater  or  less  proportion  of 
oil  of  lemon,  obtained  from  the  rind  of  lemons.  If  a  fresh 
lemon  be  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  the  skin  contains 
vast  numbers  of  oil  cells,  and  when  the  rind  is  cut  off  and 
bent  the  oil  is  seen  to  fly  off  in  minute  drops.  The  separation 
and  collection  of  this  oil  is  one  of  the  important  industries  of 
Sicily. 

Practically  the  work  is  done  entirely  by  hand,  and  is  carried 
on  at  night-time  because,  I  believe,  the  oil  is  so  delicate  that 
a  very  brief  exposure  to  sunlight  causes  it  to  oxidize,  and  so 
lose  its  delicate  aroma. 

Fruit  intended  for  the  manufacture  of  oil  of  lemon  need 
not  be  of  the  first  quality;  but  it  is  necessary  that  it  be 
outwardly  and  inwardly  sound,  healthy,  and  fresh,  so  that 
punctured  fruit,  windfalls,  and  defective  fruit  are  used  for 
manufacturing  lemon  juice,  and  not  for  oil  of  lemon.  The 
lemons  are  so  sliced  that  the  rind  is  to  a  large  extent  freed 
from  the  pulp,  and  is  in  fairly  large  but  not  unwieldy  pieces. 
I  do  not  know  whether  my  experience  is  in  any  way  unusual, 
but  I  found  very  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  admission  to  an 
oil  of  lemon  factory.  Time  after  time  I  tried  and  failed;  but 
at  last  I  was  able  to  make  a  bargain  with  a  Sicilian  merchant, 
who  desired  to  open  up  trade,  to  give  him  the  information  and 
introduction  he  desired  on  condition  that  he  obtained  permis- 
sion to  visit,  and  acted  as  my  guide  to,  one  or  two  oil  of  lemon 
factories.  It  may  be  that  I  did  not  see  the  best,  for  they  were 
not  the  cleanest  places  I  have  seen;  and,  indeed,  were  in  marked 
contrast  to  some  of  the  lemon-packing  stores.  The  very  strong 
smell  of  ammonia  indicated  a  sanitary  condition  not  desirable. 

I  found  that  the  sliced  rind  was  first  soaked  for  perhaps 
twenty  minutes  in  cold  water,  it  being  considered  that  this 
renders  the  expression  of  the  oil  more  easy.  The  workmen 
sit  in  rows,  each  with  a  small  glazed  earthenware  dish  on  his 
knees  and  a  larger  vessel  of  lemon  rind  at  his  side.  In  his 


224  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

left  hand  he  holds  a  small  sponge,  and  with  his  right  hand  he 
picks  up  the  pieces  of  rind  and,  with  a  deft  circular  movement, 
rotates  it  against  the  sponge,  at  the  same  time  bending  it 
backward  to  break  the  oil  glands,  and  so  force  the  oil  onto 
the  sponge.  The  operation  is  very  quickly  done,  but  when 
performed  by  a  skilled  hand  completely  exhausts  the  supply 
of  oil  of  lemon.  When  the  sponge  is  saturated  it  is  squeezed 
into  the  bowl.  There  is  at  first  a  large  proportion  of  lemon 
juice,  etc.,  with  the  oil;  but  this  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  the 
oil  is  poured  off,  filtered,  and  as  quickly  as  possible  put  into 
copper  "carboys"  for  exportation.  The  method  of  payment 
is,  as  a  rule,  peculiar,  each  workman  being  paid  in  proportion 
to  the  weight  of  oil  he  extracts  from  each  thirty-five  kilos  of 
rinds. 

Salted  Lemons. — Walking  along  the  wharf  the  day  after 
my  arrival  in  Palermo,  I  saw  some  hundreds  of  large 
casks,  which,  I  was  informed,  were  filled  with  salted  lemons. 
Further  inquiries  showed  that  large  quantities  of  lemons  are 
exported  in  this  form  to  Leghorn,  Genoa,  Britain,  and  other 
parts  of  Europe,  to  America,  and  even  to  Australia,  chiefly  for 
making  candied  lemon  peel.  Although  the  finest  fruit  is  never 
thus  dealt  with,  lemons  to  be  salted  must  of  necessity  be  sound. 
The  fruit  is  usually  halved,  and  then  soaked  in  salt  water  for 
from  three  to  seven  days  prior  to  shipment.  On  arrival  at  its 
destination  it  is  soaked  in  fresh  water  repeatedly  until  all  the 
brine  is  removed.  The  salt  preserves  the  peel  satisfactorily, 
but  removes  the  essential  oil,  so  that  the  fine  flavor  of  the 
fresh  lemon  is  quite  lost.  For  this  reason  only  fruit  which 
cannot  be  used  on  the  island  or  profitably  shipped  fresh  is 
dealt  with  in  this  way.  The  fruit  is  halved  merely  to  insure  a 
thorough  preservation  of  the  rind  by  an  equal  saturation  of  the 
inner  and  outer  surfaces. 

Candied  Lemon  Peel. — As  far  as  I  could  learn,  no  candied 
lemon  peel  is  prepared  in  Sicily.  In  "The  Sayings  of  Agur" 
it  is  written — 

"There  be  three  things  which  are  too  wonderful  for  me, 
Yea,  four,  which  I  know  not: 
The  way  of  an  eagle  in  the  air; 
The  way  of  a  serpent  upon  a  rock; 
The  way  of  a  ship  in  the  midst  of  the  sea; 
And  the  way  of  a  man  with  a  maid."— PROVERBS. 


MANUFACTURED    PRODUCTS    OF   THE    LEMON.  225 

To  these  I  would  add  the  way  of  trade  on  the  sea,  for  there 
appears  to  be  no  known  law  by  which  one  can  understand  why 
certain  industries  establish  themselves  in  given  localities. 
Why,  for  example,  should  the  candied  citron  and  lemon  peel 
industry  become  centered  in  Leghorn?  The  lemons  and  citrons 
are  all  imported  from  Corsica,  Sicily,  Calabria,  and  even  from 
Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Morocco.  The  fuel  comes  from  England,  the 
sugar  is  imported  from  Egypt,  the  wood  for  the  boxes  from 
Trieste,  and  the  earthenware  vessels  from  Florence.  The  peel 
is  sent  away  to  Britain,  Germany,  America,  etc.  I  cannot 
learn  of  any  special  advantage  which  Leghorn  possesses;  but 
there  this  particular  branch  of  the  candied  fruit  industry  is 
centered,  and  so  it  is  necessary  to  leave  Sicily  for  a  time  with 
the  salted  lemons  and  note  the  treatment  they  receive  in 
Leghorn. 

The  first  process  is  the  separation  of  the  fruit  from  the  rind. 
Women  sit  around  a  big  vessel,  skillfully  gouge  out  the  pulp 
with  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  and  throw  the  rind  into  a 
vessel  ready  to  receive  it.  The  rind  is  then  soaked  for  several 
days  in  cold,  fresh  water  to  remove  the  salt.  It  is  then  boiled 
in  copper  vessels  for  one  or  two  hours  for  the  double  purpose 
of  removing  any  remaining  salt  and  softening  the  rind.  It 
should  now  be  soft  enough  to  absorb  the  sugar  readily. 

The  absorption  of  sugar  takes  fully  eight  days,  for  the  essen- 
tial principle  is  that  the  process  must  be  very  gradual  and 
slow.  To  this  end  it  is  first  treated  with  a  weak  solution, 
but  as  the  process  goes  on  the  solution  may  be  gradually 
strengthened,  for  the  power  of  absorption  grows.  Fresh  rind 
absorbs  with  great  difficulty;  and  if  at  once  plunged  into 
strong  syrup  the  process  is  slow  and  irregular,  whereas  if 
repeated  at  once  with  a  strong  solution  it  becomes  permeated 
with  that,  and  further  absorption  is  more  easy.  I  have 
repeated  this  because  it  is  the  essential  principle  in  making 
candied  peel  or  candied  fruits. 

The  candying-room  is  fitted  with  rows  of  immense  earthen- 
ware vessels,  after  the  fashion  of  the  ancient  wine  jars  of  the 
Romans.  These  are  perhaps  four  feet  high  and  thirty  inches 
in  diameter,  with  short  necks  and  wide  mouths.  For  description, 
the  jars  may  be  grouped  into  sets  of  eight,  and  as  what  goes 
on  in  one  set  goes  on  in  all  other  sets,  it  will  save  confusion  to 
consider  the  room  as  having  only  eight  jars.  As  each  jar  will 
15c 


226  STATE   BOARD    OF   HORTICULTURE. 

hold  many  hundred  pounds  of  syrup  and  peel,  the  workmen 
find  it  easier  to  manipulate  the  syrup  than  the  peel.  Each  jar 
is  furnished  with  a  simple  perforated  wooden  well,  in  which  a 
simple  suction  pump  is  inserted,  so  that  the  syrup  can  be 
pumped  from  one  jar  into  the  adjoining  one. 

Supposing  jar  No.  1  is  the  one  which  has  just  been  filled 
with  peel  brought  direct  from  the  copper  boiler  before  men- 
tioned, then  No.  8  will  contain  peel  in  the  last  stage  of  candying. 
A  syrup  of  thirty  degrees  strength  by  the  particular  densometer 
used  is  prepared  and  poured  into  jar  No.  8.  Here  it  remains 
for  a  day,  and  then  having  been  weakened  by  the  amount 
absorbed  by  the  peel,  it  is  pumped  into  No.  7,  and  next  day 
from  there  into  No.  6,  and  so  on,  so  that  when  it  comes 
to  No.  1  it  is  weak,  as  is  required  by  new  peel.  At  each 
operation  the  density  is  tested,  and  should  it  get  too  weak  it  is 
strengthened.  In  this  way  the  process  is  to  a  large  extent 
self-regulating. 

A  slight  fermentation  often  takes  place  in  the  jars,  and  this 
is  considered  beneficial  if  it  is  not  allowed  to  go  too  far. 

After  the  eighth  day  the  fruit  is  removed  from  the  jar,  and 
boiled  in  a  syrup  of  a  density  of  forty  degrees  in  large  copper 
vessels  over  slow  coke  fires,  the  peel  being  gently  stirred  with  a 
wooden  paddle  to  prevent  its  adhering  to  the  vessel. 

When  taken  from  the  fire  it  is  spread  on  coarse  wire  netting 
over  wooden  troughs,  into  which  the  surplus  syrup  drains 
while  the  peel  dries. 

The  final  operation  is  the  candying,  or  covering  the  surface 
with  candied  sugar.  For  this  purpose  sugar  is  dissolved  in  a 
little  water  in  a  copper  boiler,  and  the  dry  peel  is  immersed 
and  boiled  for  a  short  time  over  a  slow  fire.  It  is  poured  from 
the  coppers  on  to  the  wire,  and  again  dried,  the  sugar  this  time 
forming  candy  or  crystals  over  the  surface,  and  it  is  ready  for 
the  packing-room. 

Citric  Acid. — This  is  manufactured  from  the  citrate  of  lime. 
The  citrate  is  mingled  with  a  liquid  composed  of  six  parts  of 
water  and  one  part  of  pure  sulphuric  acid.  The  latter  decom- 
poses the  citrate  of  lime,  unites  with  the  lime  to  form  sulphate 
of  lime,  or  gypsum,  and  liberates  the  citric  acid  in  solution  in 
the  water,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  evaporation  in  pans. 
The  crystals  are  afterward  redissolved,  and  purified  with  animal 
carbon  and  hydrochloric  acid. 


THE   CITRON    IN   CALIFORNIA. 


227 


THE  CITRON. 

Citrus  medica  cedra,  Linn. 


The  citron  grows  and  fruits  well  in  California  wherever  the 
lemon  thrives.  The  tree  is  easy  of  culture,  and  the  preparation 
of  the  rind  simple, 
therefore  there  is 
hardly  any  reason 
why  the  California- 
grown  citron,  were 
it  accorded  the  same 
protection  that  the 
orange  and  lemon 
now  have,  should 
not  supplant  the 
imported. 

The  fruit  of  the 
citron  is  generally 
oblong,  or  of  conical 
shape  and  swollen, 
more  or  less  striped 
or  furrowed,  and 
particularly  large. 
The  skin  is  of  the 
color  of  the  lemon, 
and  is  very  aromatic. 
Some  varieties  are 
very  smooth,  while 
others  are  covered 
with  warty  excres- 
cences and  very 
thick  and  highly 
scented.  The  pulp  is  less  acid  than  that  of  the  lemon,  and 
quite  bitter.  The  flowers  with  their  delicious  perfume  are 
purplish  outside  apd  white  within;  leaves  subserrate;  young 
branches  violet  tinged.  The  tree  blooms  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  and  is  very  susceptible  to  frost,  as  much  so  as  the  lime. 


THE  CITRON— PRIMAL  TYPE.    ( Citrus  cedravulgans.) 


228 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


Most  varieties  of  the  citron  have  "  two  rinds,"  i.  e.j  the  outer 
one,  thin,  with  miliary  glands  fall  of  very  fragrant  oil;  the 
inner,  thick  and  white,  very  sweet  and  agreeable.  It  is  for 
this  inner  rind  that  the  citron  is  valued,  and  it  is  used  exten- 
sively in  cookery,  both  in  its  candied  and  preserved  forms. 


PROPAGATION. 

The  propagation  of  the  citron  is  quite  simple,  and  is  multi- 
plied by  cuttings,  by  budding,  or  grown  from  the  seed.     The 
^§  ^^fj^^^^^  cuttings  are  planted  in  the 

^^Sfe^fiM  ^:  spring  of   the  year.     They 

\^1BH  ^^^    are  cu^  from  one  or  two  year 

|W^H  B    old  wood  and  from  eight  to 

I  IC^^^I  |^fc«**a*dli^       fourteen  inches  long,  vary- 
A  ^K*  ing  in  thickness  from  the  size  of 

%v%  a  lead   pencil   to   one   or   more 

v^fc  inches  in  diameter.     They  read- 

ily take  root  and  can  be  moved 
to  orchard  form  in   the  spring 
following,  but  are  generally  left 
two  years  in  the  nursery  in  order 
to  obtain  a  better 
and    stronger   root 
system. 

The  citron  takes 

readily  on  stock  of  any  of  the  citrus 
fruits,  but  being  susceptible  to  the 
gum  disease  should  be  budded  at 
least  a  foot  from  the  ground,  so  that 
it  may  not  emit  roots  of  its  own. 
The  best  time  to  bud  the  citron  is 
in  the  spring,  just  as  the  stocks 
begin  to  put  forth  and  the  sap  flows 
freely.  Buds  inserted  early  in  the 
season  start  with  vigor,  and  by  fall 
have  a  large  and  thrifty  top. 

The  citron  root  is  quite  delicate 
and  brittle,  more  so  than  that  of  the  lemon.  While  the  cutting 
system  is  one  of  the  quickest  ways  to  grow  the  citron,  budding 
on  hardier  stocks,  such  as  the  sweet  orange,  is  most  preferable. 


Fruiting  branch  of  the  citron- 
reduced. 


230  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

From  Seed. — The  seeds  of  the  citron  germinate  quite  easily, 
but  much  care  is  required  to  be  successful  in  raising  seedlings. 
After  the  seed  is  washed  out  of  the  fruit  it  is  kept  moist  and 
never  allowed  to  get  dry,  for  in  drying  the  kernel  loses  its  power 
of  germination.  The  seed  is  planted  in  the  spring  after  all 
danger  of  frost  has  passed,  either  in  prepared  seed-beds  or  in 
boxes.  It  is  sown  broadcast  and  covered  with  an  inch  of  leaf 
mould  mixed  with  sand.  Great  care  must  be  taken  from  this 
time  on  that  the  soil  be  kept  moist  and  yet  not  too  wet,  as  the 
seeds  rot  easily.  The  seeds  germinate  in  about  a  month,  or 
longer  if  the  weather  be  cold.  The  following  spring  the  plants 
are  planted  in  nursery  row. 

VARIETIES. 

Numerous  varieties  have  been  introduced,  many  of  which 
are  yet  in  the  experimental  state. 

LEMON,  OR  SORRENTO  (Plate  XXII). — This  variety  was 
among  the  first  introduced,  and  has  fruited  regularly  ever  since. 
Shape  oblong,  like  the  lemon,  with  a  very  pleasant  aroma, 
which  is  much  esteemed.  Skin  bright  yellow,  smooth  and  very 
glossy;  inner  skin  white,  coarse  and  thick,  with  very  little 
trace  of  bitterness.  Pulp  very  bitter  and  deficient  in  juice. 
The  fruit  grows  irregularly,  some  very  large  and  others  very 
small,  the  largest  weighing  from  three  to  five  (or  more)  pounds 
each. 

LYMAN. — A  Florida  variety,  said  to  be  very  good. 

ORANGE. — A  round  citron. 

Other  varieties  grown  here: 


Porno  de  Adamo 
Macrocarpo 
Incompio 
Pireltone 
Cedro  Vara 

Testa  de  Turco 
Limonzania 
Cornuta 
Salodiana 
Plena 

Dulcis 
Florentina 
Elongata 
Rugosa 
Romana 

Sulcata 
Costata 
Glabra 
Simoniformis 
Parra 

PREPARATION  OF  CITRON  RIND. 

The  fruit  before  assuming  a  yellow  color,  and  also  when  bright 
yellow,  is  picked  and  placed  in  barrels  filled  with  brine,  and 
left  for  at  least  a  month.  The  brine  is  renewed  several  times, 
and  the  fruit  allowed  to  remain  in  it  until  required  for  use, 
often  for  a  period  of  four  or  five  months.  When  the  citrons  are 


COMMERCIAL    IMPORTANCE    OF    THE    CITRON. 


231 


to  be  candied  they  are  taken  from  the  barrels  and  boiled  in  fresh 
water  to  soften  them.  They  are  then  cut  into  halves,  the  seed 
and  pulp  are  removed, 
and  the  fruit  is  again 
immersed  in  cold 
water,  soon  becoming 
of  a  greenish  color. 
After  this  it  is  placed 
in  large  earthen  jars, 
covered  with  hot  syr- 
up, and  allowed  to 
stand  about  three 
weeks.  During  this 
time  the  strength  of 
the  syrup  is  gradually 
increased.  The  fruit 
is  then  put  into  boil- 
ers with  crystallized 

SUgar    dissolved    in    a      Cross-section  of  citron  showing  pulp  and  thickness 

of  rind— reduced  one  half. 

small    quantity    of 

water,  and  cooked;  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  boiled  again 
until  it  will  take  up  no  more  sugar.  It  is  then  dried  and 
packed  in  wooden  boxes. 


COMMERCIAL  IMPORTANCE. 

So  far  the  citron  consumed  in  the  United  States  is  imported 
from  Europe.  Most  of  it  is  shipped  to  Eastern  houses  and  by 
them  prepared  for  market.  In  this  way  importers  avoid  the 
payment  of  a  duty  on  same.  The  citron  commonly  used  by 
confectioners,  bakers,  and  candy-makers  is  imported  already 
prepared. 

For  several  years  there  have  been  regular  importations  of 
citron  in  brine  coming  in  large  hogsheads,  almost  entirely  from 
Leghorn.  It  has  come  to  two  houses  in  New  York  and  to  four 
houses  in  Chicago,  all  of  whom  put  it  through  the  process  of 
candying  or  sugaring.  It  costs  about  four  cents  a  pound 
landed  in  New  York  in  the  brine.  I  am  informed  that  the 
yearly  demand  for  the  United  States  equals  about  12,000  cases 
of  some  250  pounds  each  after  it  has  been  candied. 


232  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

In  answer  to  an  inquiry  regarding  importations  and  pros- 
pective competition  from  California  prepared  citron,  the 
following  interesting  data  were  obtained: 

CHICAGO,  August  23,  1899. 
MR.  B.  M.  LELONG,  Sacramento,  CaL: 

DEAR  SIR:  Yours  of  1st  received  and  contents  fully  noted.  The  citron 
that  we  import  to  this  country  is  mostly  grown  on  the  isle  of  Corsica,  some 
being  shipped  from  Messina,  Italy,  and  some  from  Greece,  but  that  shipped 
from  those  countries  is  not  considered  as  good  as  that  which  is  shipped  from 
Corsica.  The  price  generally  rules  from  12  shillings  and  6  pence  up  to  18 
shillings  and  6  pence,  cost  and  freight  N.  Y.  We  do  not  know  of  any  citron 
grown  in  this  country.  It  would  be  a  saving  to  the  trade  west  of  the  Rocky 
"Mountains,  but  it  would  not  be  if  shipped  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  as 
the  freight  would  be  more  than  the  freight  from  the  isle  of  Corsica. 
Yours  truly, 

SPRAGUE,  WARNER  &  CO. 

CHICAGO,  August  16,  1899. 
Horticultural  Department,  State  Board  of  Horticulture,  Sacramento,  CaL: 

GENTLEMEN:  Your  letter  regarding  citron  has  been  handed  the  writer, 
who  is  manager  of  our  citron  department. 

The  amount  of  citron  imported  annually  into  America  is  about  two 
thousand  tons.  The  firms  who  are  curing  or  manufacturing  citron  from  raw 
citrons  that  are  imported  in  brine  are:  Hills  Bros.  Company,  New  York 
City;  Andrew  L.  Causse,  New  York  City.  The  Chicago  manufacturers  are 
Sprague,  Warner  &  Co.,  Franklin  MacVeagh  &  Co.,  J.  B.  Inderrieden  &  Co., 
and  ourselves. 

The  best  quality  of  citron  is  raised  in  Corsica,  the  next  best  quality  in 
Greece,  and  the  poorest  in  Sicily.  We  understand  the  culture  of  citron  is 
very  difficult  and  that  the  trees  require  the  most  constant  care  and  attention, 
and  even  then  failures  of  crop  are  frequent.  As  to  whether  it  can  be  pro- 
duced successfully  in  California  is  of  course  a  question  that  we  cannot 
answer.  This  is  about  all  the  information  that  we  can  think  of  that  would 
be  of  service  to  you. 

Yours  very  truly, 

REID,  MURDOCH  &  CO. 

NEW  YORK,  August  12,  1899. 
B.  M.  LELONG,  Secretary  State  Board  of  Horticulture,  Sacramento,  CaL: 

DEAR  SIR  :  In  due  course  of  mail  we  received  your  esteemed  favor  of  28th 
ult.,  relative  to  citron,  and  in  reply  can  tell  you  that  for  several  years  there 
have  been  regular  importations  of  citron  in  brine  coming  in  large  hogsheads, 
almost  entirely  from  Leghorn.  It  came  to  two  houses  in  this  city  and  to 
three  or  four  houses  in  Chicago,  all  of  whom  put  it  through  a  process  and 
candied  (glace")  and  sugared  it.  We  understand  it  costs  about  four  cents  a 
pound  landed  here  in  the  brine,  and  there  is  no  duty  on  it.  The  demand  for 
this  whole  country  yearly,  we  are  told,  equals  about  12,000  cases  of  some  250 
pounds  each  after  it  has  been  candied.  We  are  unable  to  ascertain  whether 
it  is  a  profitable  business  or  not,  although  one  wTould  judge  that  it  would  not 
have  been  continued  during  late  years  if  it  had  been  found  unprofitable. 
One  of  our  informants,  a  man  pretty  well  posted,  says  he  does  not  believe 
one  penny  profit  is  made,  but  none  of  these  people  care  to  give  it  up,  hoping 
for  better  times,  etc. 


COMMERCIAL    IMPORTANCE    OF    THE   CITRON. 


233 


Trusting  that  this  is  the  information  you  desire  to  have,  and  always  at 
your  service,  we  remain, 

Very  truly  yours, 

SGOBEL  &  DAY. 

CHICAGO,  October  14,  1899. 
MR.  B.  M.  LELONG,  Secretary  State  Board  of  Horticulture,  Sacramento,  CaL: 

DEAR  SIR:  We  should  have  replied  to  yours  of  July  28th  before  this. 
However,  \ve  wanted  to  give  you  positive  information  as  to  whether  there 
were  any  established  houses  in  the  East  who  were  preparing  the  citron  of  com- 
merce for  market.  We  are  now  in  a  position  to  inform  you  that  this  article, 
which  is  shipped  from  Europe  in  brine,  is  very  small  and  shipped  only  as  an 
experiment,  which,  as  far  as  we  can  learn,  has  been  a  failure.  The  citron 
commonly  used  by  confectioners,  bakers,  and  candy-makers  is  imported 
already  prepared.  This,  however,  should  not  prevent  California  growers  from 
raising  citron  in  that  State  in  larger  quantities  than  they  do  now,  and  pre- 
paring it  for  market  right  in  their  own  State.  Like  a  great  many  industries, 
California  would  soon  head  the  list  as  a  citron-producing  State  and  would  no 
doubt  at  no  distant  date  supply  the  demand  of  at  least  the  United  States. 
Yours  truly, 

JOHN  ZUCCA  &  CO. 


French  method  of  protecting  the  limbs  of  the  Citron  and  its  fruit. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  XXIII. 


CASTLEMAN  LIME  — A  MONSTER.    A  hybrid  — Lime  x  Pomelo. 


THE  LIME  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


THE    LIME   IN    CALIFORNIA— CHARACTERISTICS.  235 


THE  LIME. 

'Citrus  limetta,  Risso. 


The  lime  is  naturally  a  straggling  bush  or  tree,  and  is 
frequently  trimmed  into  hedge  form;  it  grows  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen feet  high.  The  fruit  is  small,  round  or  ovate,  or  depressed, 
with  a  bitter  rind.  The  juice  is  much  "  sharper  "  than  that  of 
the  lemon. 

The  lime  is  more  susceptible  to  injury  from  frost  than  the 
lemon,  and  should  not  be  planted  except  in  locations  absolutely 
free  from  danger  of  frost,  and  on  this  account  it  is  not  grown 
successfully  except  in  the  warm  belts  and  sheltered  localities. 

Since  the  Government  placed  a  duty  of  one  cent  per  pound 
on  foreign  citrus  fruits,  very  few  limes  are  imported.  This 
should  stimulate  the  planting  of  the  lime  in  our  suitable 
localities. 

The  lime  is  very  easily  propagated  from  seed.  The  seeds 
always  germinate  without  much  difficulty,  and  the  plants 
come  true  from  the  seed;  the  seeds  "  sport"  only  in  exceptional 
cases.  It  is  also  budded  on  the  orange. 

The  tree  does  not  resent  pruning  as  the  lemon  does,  and  may 
be  fashioned  into  any  shape  to  please  the  fancy  of  the  grower. 
It  is  well,  however,  to  consider  the  natural  habit  of  the  tree 
and  to  leave  it  as  much  in  bush  form  as  possible.  The  lower 
limbs  that  rest  on  the  ground  and  all  superfluous  and  interfer- 
ing wood  should  be  removed. 

The  methods  of  planting  and  cultivating  the  lime  are  similar 
to  those  required  for  the  lemon.  Like  the  latter,  the  fruit 
should  be  picked  before  it  ripens,  but  does  not  require  process- 
ing before  being  shipped  to  market.  Lime  trees  are  planted 
fifteen  or  sixteen  feet  apart,  and  begin  to  bear  at  the  fourth 
year,  being  in  full  bearing  at  eight. 


236 


STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 


Imperial  Lime— natural  size. 


VARIETIES. 

IMPERIAL. — Fruit  large,  about  the  size  of  the  Genoa  lemon, 

with  strong  acid,  few 
seeds.  Tree  tender, 
wood  brittle,  but  very 
productive  and  a  good, 
thrifty  grower;  fruits 
all  the  year  round;  not 
as  thorny  as  the  Mexi- 
can, and  not  as  suscep- 
tible to  frost. 

MEXICAN.  —  Fruit 
small,  very  popular, 
identical  with  the  im- 
ported limes  in  our  mar- 
kets. Tree  dwarf,  and 
suitable  for  hedges,  but 
very  susceptible  to  cold. 
TAHITI. — Fruit  large,  coarse,  and  of  inferior  quality. 
PEAR-SHAPED. — Fruit  large,  pyriform,  of  a  pale  yellow  color, 

with  smooth,  thin  skin,  and  a  strong  aroma,  partaking  of  the 

shaddock.       Pulp    juicy, 

with   strong   acid;     seeds 

few  and  small.    Tree  very 

large    and    hardy — orna- 
mental sort,  undoubtedly 

a  "sport."     Grown  by  I. 

A.  Castleman,    of    River-  I 

side. 

BEARSS. — A  superb  vari-  ' 

ety,  seedless  or  almost  so. 

Fruit  large,  about  the  size 

of    the   Imperial,    nearly 

round,  with  a  thin,  tough 

skin.     Flesh   tender    and 

very  juicy,  acid  somewhat 

Cross-section  of  Imperial  Lime — natural  size. 


v 


v 


T. 


mild.     Grown    by    J. 
Bearss,  of  Porterville. 

Miscellaneous  Varieties. — The    following    varieties    have 
been  introduced  in  recent  years,  principally  from  Florida: 


THE    LIME    IN    CALIFORNIA— VARIETIES. 


237 


JEWISH. — A  small  conical  lime. 

GENOESE. — Large,  like  a  lemon  in  shape. 

FLORENTINE. — Hybrid. 

MONSTER. — Fruit  extra  large,  resembles  a  lemon. 

SALO. — A  small,  round  lime. 

PERSIAN. — A  large,  coarse  lime;  inferior. 

CITRONELLA. — A  large,  coarse  lime,  with  thick  rind. 

ASSAM. — Said  to  be  a  strong  grower. 

FLORIDA  SEEDLING. — A  large  lime,  the  size  of  a  lemon,  quite 
coarse. 

OTHER  VARIETIES. — Valentine,  Knatta,  Kaghazir,  Sour  Kurna, 
Sour  Turan,  Sour  Rangpur,  Sour  Jamberi,  Sour  Galgal,  Sada- 
phal,  Verucene. 


Cross-section  of  Bearss  Lime— natural  size. 


CITRUS  CULTURE  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


PLATE  XXIV. 


BLOSSOM  OF  DOUBLE-FLOWERED  BERGA.MOT 

ORANGE, 
From  which  Neroli  is  manufactured. 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE  CITRUS. 


PRODUCTS    OF   THE   CITRU 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE  CITRUS. 


Although  there  are  innumerable  varieties  of  the  citrus, 
which,  owing  to  their  inferiority,  are  worthless  for  cultivation, 
yet  all,  or  nearly  all,  have  merit  in  one  way  or  another.  In 
Europe  every  part  of  the  tree  is  utilized  for  various  purposes. 
The  flower,  the  leaf,  the  pulp,  the  rind,  the  wood — all  enter 
into  articles  of  commerce.  R.  C.  Haldane,  in  his  work, 
"Subtropical  Cultivations  and  Climate,"  London,  1886,  gives 
the  following  formulas,  which  I  quote,  with  due  thanks  to  the 
author: 

" Orange-  Flower  Perfume.— In  the  early  morning  the 
blossoms  are  collected  as  soon  as  the  petals  begin  to  fall,  by 
shaking  the  tree  over  a  sheet  spread  on  the  ground.  A  tree 
yields  from  two  to  ten  pounds  of  flowers.  The  perfume  is 
generally  extracted  by  enfleurage,  as  follows:  A  frame  is 
required  six  feet  high,  thirty  inches  wide,  and  twenty  inches 
deep;  in  this  grooves  are  cut  to  allow  trays  one  and  a  half 
inches  deep  to  run.  These  trays  are  covered  with  wire  gauze. 
Between  every  two  trays  there  is  a  sheet  of  stout  glass,  framed; 
on  this,  grease  or  vaseline  is  thickly  spread.  The  whole  should 
be  as  air-tight  as  possible.  Every  morning  fresh  flowers  must 
be  put  in  the  wire-gauze  traps;  and  this  is  continued  for  a 
month  or  two,  when  the  grease  is  removed. 

"The  grease  is  made  as  follows:  Melt  equal  parts  of  beef- 
suet  and  lard,  or  mutton-suet,  beef-suet,  and  lard,  well  together. 
Pound  well  in  a  mortar  and  wash  until  perfectly  clean.  Melt 
over  a  slow  fire,  adding  three  ounces  of  powdered  alum  and  a 
little  salt  to  each  hundredweight.  Heat  the  grease  until  it 
begins  to  bubble,  and  then  strain  into  a  deep  pan  and  let  it 
clarify  for  two  or  three  hours.  The  clear  grease  is  then  put  on 
a  charcoal  fire,  and  three  quarts  of  rose  water  and  half  a  pound 
of  powdered  gum-benzoin  added;  it  is  gently  boiled,  and  all 
scum  taken  off  till  it  ceases  to  appear.  Put  the  grease  in  deep 
pans  to  cool;  when  solid  remove  any  water  there  may  be  in  it, 
liquefy,  and  pour  into  vessels  for  future  use.  Besides  grease, 


240  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

glycerine,  vaseline,  and  paraffine  are  all  used.  Formerly, 
instead  of  using  grease  in  enfleurage,  oiled  linen  was  employed 
to  absorb  the  odor  and  afterward  squeezed  in  a  screw  press. 

"A  superior  system  is  by  employing  Fiver's  pneumatic  frame, 
which  has  two  bellows  on  the  top  which  send  a  constant  cur- 
rent of  air  through  the  flowers.  The  most  primitive  is  the 
Spanish,  which  consists  of  two  bowls — the  upper  one,  or  cover, 
being  lined  with  grease,  while  the  lower  holds  the  flowers. 

"  To  extract  the  perfume  from  the  grease,  or  *  pomade/  as  it 
is. called  after  being  scented,  chop  up  eight  pounds  of  pomade, 
put  it  in  one  gallon  of  sixty  over-proof  alcohol,  and  let  it  remain 
for  one  month  at  summer  heat. 

"Essence  or  Extract  of  Orange-Flower  is  prepared  by 
tincturation.  Four  ounces  of  orange-flowers  are  steeped  in  one 
gallon  of  alcohol  until  all  the  perfume  has  been  absorbed  by 
the  spirit.  This  preparation  is  also  known  as  extract  of  neroli. 

"Essential  Oils  of  Orange  are  expressed  thus:  The  peel  is 
cut  from  the  pulp  in  three  longitudinal  slices,  leaving  the  pulp 
in  a  triangular  shape.  The  peel  and  pulp  are  kept  separate. 
Next  day  the  outer  surface  of  the  peel  is  bent  convexly,  and 
pressed  four  or  five  times  against  a  flat  sponge  held  in  the  left 
hand  of  the  workman.  From  time  to  time  the  oil  is  squeezed 
from  the  sponge  into  a  vessel,  from  which  it  is  drawn  after  the 
watery  fluid  separates  from  the  oil.  Four  hundred  oranges  yield 
from  nine  to  fourteen  ounces  of  oil.  The  pulp  is  distilled  for 
the  small  amount  of  essential  oil  it  contains.  When  lemons 
are  thus  treated,  the  pulp  is  pressed  until  the  lemon  juice 
is  all  extracted,  and  then  distilled. 

"  Petit-Grain  Oil. — Prepared  from  young  tender  shoots  and 
leaves  of  both  Sweet  and  Seville  oranges,  the  latter  being  most 
valuable.  The  oil  is  obtained  by  distillation  with  water. 

"  Neroli,  or  Oil  of  Orange-Flower.— Obtained  by  distilling 
the  flowers  of  the  sweet  and  bitter  orange  with  water.  The 
bitter  orange  gives  a  superior  oil.  It  is  very  fluid,  is  lighter 
than  water,  in  which  it  is  slightly  soluble.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  flowers  give  from  three  to  six  ounces  of  neroli.  It  is 
generally  adulterated  with  alcohol  or  essence  of  petit-grain. 
Essential  oils  of  orange,  lemon,  or  bergamot  are  better  extracted 


PRODUCTS   OF   THE    CITRUS.  241 

by  aid  of  an  implement  known  as  the  ecuelle  h  piques,  a  saucer- 
shaped  vessel  of  pewter  about  eight  inches  wide,  with  a  lip  on 
one  side.  The  bottom  is  armed  with  numerous  brass  pins  about 
half  an  inch  high,  which  stand  upward.  The  center  has  a  tube 
five  or  six  inches  long,  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  closed  at 
the  farthest  end.  The  whole  resembles  a  shallow  funnel.  The 
peel  is  rubbed  against  the  pins  by  hand,  and  when  the  tube  is 
full  of  oil  it  is  emptied  into  another  vessel. 

"  The  Peel  of  the  Bitter  Orange  is  used  in  medicine  as  an 

aromatic  tonic,  but  more  frequently  for  counteracting  the 
nauseous  taste  of  other  medicines.  The  most  common  forms 
are  syrup  of  orange,  tincture  of  orange,  and  confection  of  orange. 

"  Oil  of  Lemon. — It  is  extracted  from  green  fruit  by  pressing 
the  rind  against  a  sponge,  or  by  the  ecuelle.  An  inferior  oil  is 
produced  by  ra.sping  the  peel  of  the  fruit  and  distilling  with 
water.  One  hundred  fruit  should  yield  from  two  and  one  half 
to  three  and  one  half  ounces  of  oil.  The  lemons  are  sometimes 
scarified  and  thrown  into  hot  water,  and  the  oil  skimmed  off. 

"Citric  Acid. — Is  obtained  from  lemon  juice  by  saturating 
it  with  chalk  or  whiting  until  effervescence  ceases,  by  which 
citrate  of  lime  is  formed.  This  is  precipitated,  the  super- 
natant liquid  run  off,  and  the  precipitate  well  washed.  The 
precipitate  is  then  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid;  sulphate 
of  lime  and  citric  acid  are  the  results.  The  former  sinks,  and 
the  clear  solution  is  evaporated  in  leaden  boilers  and  then 
crystallized — the  crystals  being  purified  by  being  again  dis- 
solved and  recrystallized." 

Uses  to  Which  Lemons  May  Be  Put. — A  firm  of  lemon- 
packers  in  Italy  gives  the  following  as  among  the  uses  to 
which  lemons  may  be  put: 

"During  the  last  influenza  epidemic  in  London,  the  Board 
of  Health  of  said  city  advised  the  public  to  make  free  use  of 
lemons  to  combat  said  epidemic. 

"  A  warm  lemonade,  taken  in  bed,  will  immediately  produce 
an  abundant  perspiration,  and  a  positive  relief  from  a  cold. 

"  A  few  drops  of  fresh  lemon  juice  added  to  drinking  water 
will  kill  any  microbes  and  greatly  help  digestion. 

"Lemons  used  in  a  bath  will  act  as  a  disinfectant,  clean  the 
pores  of  the  skin,  hence  revive  their  action. 
16c 


242  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

"  Lemon  juice  is  also  universally  known  as  one  of  the  best 
remedies  for  rheumatism;  and  when  diluted  with  warm  water 
and  salt  and  sniffed  up  the  nostrils  and  used  as  a  gargle  is  an 
excellent  cure  for  catarrhal  affections. 

"No  cuisine  is  perfect  without  lemons,  and  this  fruit  is  a 
necessary  condiment  to  nearly  all  viands." 

Orange  Wine. — Take  one  part  orange  juice,  well  strained,, 
one  part  water,  three  pounds  sugar  per  gallon.  Any  kind  of 
sugar  will  do,  and  the  darker  the  sugar  the  richer  will  be  the 
color  of  the  wine.  For  each  ten  gallons  put  up  keep  about  one- 
gallon  of  the  same  for  refilling  the  casks  during  fermentation. 
Lay  casks  on  the  side,  fill  full,  and  leave  bung  open.  Do  not 
let  it  be  exposed  to  much  cold.  Fill  up  the  casks  every  day, 
from  the  quantity  kept  out,  as  the  scum  is  thrown  off,  and 
watch  closely,  until  the  wine  passes  through  the  stage  of 
alcoholic  fermentation.  This  will  usually  require  from  ten  to 
twenty  days,  or  longer  if  the  weather  is  cool,  and  can  easily  be 
determined  by  scum  ceasing  to  rise,  and  the  cessation  of  brisk 
fermentation.  When  it  arrives  at  this  stage,  place  the  bung  in 
loosely.  Watch  closely  for  a  few  days,  and  as  active  fermenta- 
tion ceases,  put  the  bung  in  fast.  Let  it  stand  two  months, 
then  rack  off  carefully  into  clean  casks.  If  perfectly  clear,, 
seal  and  let  it  stand  six  months,  when  it  may  be  bottled.  If 
not  clear,  it  should  be  racked  off  a  second  time  in  two  months 
after  the  first  time,  and  sealed  for  six  months  before  bottling. 
Be  sure  your  casks  are  full,  for  contact  with  the  air  will  cause 
the  wine  to  pass  into  acetic  fermentation.  Considerable  wine 
from  oranges  has  been  manufactured  in  Florida,  and  the 
demand  for  it  has  been  very  good  at  $5  per  gallon.  The  wine 
continues  to  improve  with  age. 

ESSENCES  AND  LEMON  JUICE.* 

"  Essences. — With  three  strokes  of  his  sharp  knife  the  cutter 
peels  the  lemon  lengthwise  and  lets  the  peel  fall  into  a  tub 
under  the  chopping-block.  He  then  cuts  the  lemon  in  two  and 
throws  it  from  his  knife  into  a  bucket.  He  works  with  wonder- 
ful rapidity  and  fills  from  ten  to  twelve  tubs  with  peel  a  day 
and  is  paid  5  cents  a  tub,  weighing  77  pounds.  His  left  hand 
and  right  index  are  protected  with  bands  of  osnaburgs  or 

*Report  of  Wallace  S.  Jones,  of  Messina,  "Fruit  Culture  in  Foreign 
Countries,"  1890. 


PRODUCTS    OF   THE   CITRUS.  243 

leather.  Decayed  fruit  is  not  peeled,  as  its  oil  cells,  being 
atrophied,  yield  no  essence. 

"  Fresh  peel  is  soaked  in  water  fifteen  minutes  before  the 
essence  is  extracted.  Peel  that  has  stood  a  day  or  two  should 
remain  in  soak  from  thirty  to  forty  minutes,  that  it  may  swell 
and  offer  a  greater  resistance  against  the  sponge.  The  opera- 
tive holds  a  small  sponge  in  his  left  hand,  against  which  he 
presses  each  piece  of  peel  two  or  three  times — simple  pressure 
followed  by  rotary  pressure.  The  women  employed  in  this 
work  run  a  piece  of  cane  through  their  sponges  to  enable  them 
to  hold  them  more  firmly.  The  outside  of  the  peel  is  pressed 
against  the  sponge,  as  the  oil  glands  are  in  the  epicarp.  The 
crushing  of  the  oil  cells  liberates  the  essence  therein  contained. 
The  sponge,  when  saturated  with  the  essence,  is  squeezed  into 
an  earthenware  vessel  the  operative  holds  in  his  lap.  He  is 
expected  to  press  the  peel  so  thoroughly  as  not  to  overlook  a 
single  cell.  This  is  ascertained  by  holding  the  pressed  peel  to 
the  flame  of  a  candle;  should  it  neither  crackle  nor  diminish 
the  brilliancy  of  the  flame  the  cells  are  empty.  This  process 
yields  besides  the  essence  a  small  quantity  of  juice  and  feccia 
(dregs).  The  separation  of  the  essence,  juice,  and  feccia  soon 
takes  place  if  the  vessels  are  not  disturbed;  the  oil  floats  on 
the  juice  and  the  dregs  fall  to  the  bottom.  These  three  products 
derived  from  the  peel  have  no  affinity  with  one  another.  As 
the  essence  rises  to  the  surface  it  is  skimmed  off,  bottled,  and 
left  to  settle  for  a  few  days.  It  is  then  drawn  off  with  a  glass 
siphon  into  copper  cans,  which  are  hermetically  sealed. 

"The  yield  of  essence  is  very  variable.  This  industry  is 
carried  on  five  months  in  the  year.  Immature  fruit  contains 
the  most  oil.  From  November  to  April,  in  the  province  of 
Messina,  one  thousand  lemons  yield  about  14  ounces  of  essence 
and  17  gallons  of  juice.  An  operative  expresses  three  baskets 
of  lemon  peel  (weighing  190  pounds)  'a  day,  and  is  paid  20 
cents  a  basket.  The  essence  is  so  valuable  that  the  operatives 
are  closely  watched;  they  are  most  ingenious  in  secreting  it 
about  their  persons.  Six  men  work  up  eight  thousand  lemons 
a  day;  two  cut  oft'  the  peel  while  four  extract  the  essence,  and 
obtain  136  gallons  of  lemon-juice  and  7  pounds  of  essence. 
In  the  extraction  of  essence  defective  fruit — thorn-pricked  fruit, 
blown  down  by  the  wind,  or  attacked  by  rust — is  used.  This 
fruit  is  sold  by  the  "  thousand,"  equivalent  to  260  pounds,  and 


244  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

thus  classified:  First,  mixed  lemons,  as  they  come  from  the 
groves  during  December  and  January,  of  good  quality  but  not 
always  marketable,  often  from  top  branches;  second,  lemons 
from  March  blooms;  third,  lemons  refused  at  the  packing- 
house; fourth,  dropped  fruit;  fifth,  shriveled  or  deformed  fruit. 
Prices  do  not  depend  exclusively  upon  the  classification  of 
the  fruit;  the  locality  where  it  was  grown  is  taken  into  consid- 
eration. Lemons  grown  on  clay  soil  yield  more  essence  and 
juice  than  those  grown  on  sandy  or  rocky  soil.  The  essence  of 
sour  orange,  mixed  with  the  essence  of  lemon,  produces  an 
aroma  similar  to  that  of  the  essence  of  bergamot;  the  latter  is 
much  used  by  confectioners  in  flavoring  ice-creams,  etc. 

"Raw  and  Concentrated  Lemon  Juice. — Lemons  are  peeled, 
cut  in  two,  and  pressed.  If  the  juice  is  to  be  exported  raw, 
only  perfectly  sound  lemons  can  be  used;  but  if  the  juice  is  to 
be  boiled  down,  one  fifth  of  the  lemons  may  be  of  an  inferior 
quality  and  two  fifths  of  them  pretty  well  decayed.  The  juice 
from  sound  lemons  is  yellowish  in  color,  and  gives  a  pleasant 
aroma;  its  density  decreases  with  age.  With  all  classes  of 
lemons  the  yield  of  juice  and  its  acidity  vary  considerably 
from  month  to  month.  The  amount  of  juice  increases  from 
October  to  April,  its  acidity  and  density  decrease,  and  the 
same  is  the  case  with  the  density  of  the  essence,  owing  to  the 
winter  rains. 

"An  addition  of  five  per  cent  of  alcohol  will  prevent  raw 
lemon  juice  from  spoiling.  Lemon  juice  is  adulterated  with 
salt  or  tartaric  acid.  Raw  and  concentrated  lemon  juice  is 
exported  in  casks  of  130  gallons  capacity.  It  requires  1,500 
lemons  to  yield  26  gallons  of  raw  juice,  while  it  takes  2,500  to 
yield  the  same  quantity  of  concentrated  juice,  and  200,000 
more  or  less,  according  to  their  acidity,  to  give  a  cask. 

"The  value  of  lemon  juice  is  governed  by  its  acidity.  The 
•rule  is  that  concentrated  lemon  juice  shall  show  60  degrees  of 
acidity  (the  juice  extracted  from  the  bergamot  or  the  sour 
orange  must  show  48  degrees,  or  one  fifth  less  than  that 
derived  from  the  lemon;  it  also  sells  for  one  fifth  less  than 
lemon  juice).  Formerly  a  citrometer,  known  as  Rouchetti's 
gauge,  was  used  to  ascertain  the  per  cent  of  acidity;  now,  how- 
ever, resort  is  had  to  chemical  analysis,  which  is  more  satis- 
factory to  both  seller  and  buyer.  Lemon  juice  is  used  in  the 
printing  of  calicoes." 


INSECT   PESTS   AFFECTING   THE   CITRUS.  245 


INSECT  PESTS  AFFECTING  THE 
CITRUS. 


The  insect  pests  that  affect  the  citrus  are  numerous,  but  are 
now  easily  kept  in  subjection  by  artificial  means,  aided  largely 
by  their  natural  enemies — parasitical  and  predaceous. 

In  combating  insect  pests  California  has  taken  the  lead  over 
every  State  and  country  in  the  world,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
through  the  fostering  care  accorded  by  the  people  the  State  will 
not  revert  to  primitive  methods  of  allowing  injurious  insect 
pests  and  tree  and  plant  diseases  to  be  introduced  and  obtain  a 
foothold  in  our  orchards. 

The  life  of  insects  is  divided  into  four  periods:  First,  the  ovum 
(egg),  which  is  motionless,  and  apparently  lifeless;  Second,  the 
larva  (grub),  which  is  active,  voracious,  and  grows  rapidly, 
but  without  wings;  Third,  the  pupa  (chrysalis),  which  is 
incapable  of  locomotion,  and  is  in  color  and  outward  form 
entirely  unlike  the  larva  from  which  it  proceeds;  Fourth,  the 
imago  (perfect  insect),  which  is  active,  has  wings,  does  not 
increase  in  size,  and  which  lays  eggs  for  future  generations, 
thus  perpetuating  its  kind.  The  mode  in  which  the  life  of  an 
insect  is  passed  and  the  different  species  of  trees  it  infests 
differ  very  widely  in  the'  various  stages  of  its  existence. 

The  fructification  of  citrus  trees  in  particular  is  mostly 
accomplished  by  different  species  of  insects,  which  convey  the 
pollen  from  tree  to  tree,  and  also  from  the  stamens  to  the  stigma 
of  the  same  tree.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  multitudes  of 
baneful  ones,  which  injure  tree,  fruit,  etc.,  and  are  only  checked 
in  their  progress  by  other  insects  that  prey  upon  them,  or  by 
artificial  means. 

SCALE  INSECTS. 

Family  COCCIDID^. 

"Male  and  female  larvae  similar,  apterous,  naked  or  covered,  active. 
Females  in  all  stages  apterous,  metamorphosis  semi-complete,  naked  or 
covered,  active  or  stationary ;  rostrum  usually  present  in  all  stages,  some- 
times absent  in  adult;  feet  sometimes  absent  after  larval  stage;  tarsi,  where 
present,  monomerous;  feet,  where  present,  ending  in  a  single  claw,  eyes 
somewhat  absent. 


246  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

"  Male  pupse  apterous,  naked  or  covered.  Adult  males  with  two  wings  and 
two  halteres ;  metamorphosis  complete ;  rostrum  present  in  larva  and  pupa, 
always  absent  in  adult;  tarsi  monomerous,  feet  ending  in  a  single  claw; 
abdomen  terminating  in  a  spike  which  forms  the  sheath  of  the  penis ;  eyes 
present  in  adult;  ocelli  often  large,  sometimes  exceeding  three  in  number." — 
W.  M.  MASKELL,  F.R.M.S.,  "The  Scale  Insects,"  New  Zealand,  p.  37. 

This  group  of  insects  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  horticul- 
turists, as  but  few  trees  are  exempt  from  its  attacks.  While  the 
study  of  economic  entomology  is  comparatively  new  in  Califor- 
nia, its  incipiency  dating  back  but  a  few  years,  these  insects 
have  attracted  wide  attention,  as  nearly  every  branch  of  the  fruit 
industry  has  felt  their  effects  more  or  less.  In  this  State  there 
is  a  great  diversity  of  industries  in  the  fruit  line,  and  trees  and 
plants  have  been  imported  from  almost  every  country.  Upon 
them  many  injurious  species  of  insects  have  been  brought  in. 

The  pernicious  scale,  or  "San  Jose"  so  called,  which  does  not 
affect  the  citrus,  but  deciduous  trees  principally,  was  the  first 
species  of  this  group  which  gave  this  important  study  its 
incentive.  It  made  its  presence  felt  in  Santa  Clara  County 
as  early  as  1878.  Whence  it  came  is  not  definitely  known, 
but  was  no  doubt  brought  here  on  cuttings  or  trees.  As  very 
little  was  then  known  of  this  species,  effective  measures  were 
not  adopted  for  its  suppression,  and  it  spread  to  adjoining 
orchards  and  was  afterward  taken  to  other  counties  on  nursery 
trees.  For  a  time  it  threatened  to  be  a  menace  to  the  deciduous 
fruit  industry,  and  it  appeared  as  if  its  progress  could  not  be 
checked;  but  effective  measures  were  discovered  for  its  suppres- 
sion in  the  way  of  insecticides,  and  lately,  beneficial  insects 
have  accomplished  great  good  in  practically  exterminating  it 
throughout  the  State. 

In  1868  another  species,  the  cottony  cushion  scale,  was 
brought  into  our  State  on  plants  from  Australia,  its  natural 
home.  This  species  played  great  havoc  in  many  sections, 
especially  to  orange  and  lemon  orchards.  Every  means  pos- 
sible were  applied,  and  for  a  time  it  baffled  the  combined  wisdom 
of  scientists  and  fruit-growers.  It  was  not  that  the  insecticides 
applied  did  not  kill  the  pest,  but  because  all  insects  could  not 
be  reached,  enough  escaping  to  reinfest  the  tree.  Here  again 
nature  came  to  our  relief.  The  Vedalia  cardinalis,  Mulsant, 
in  one  season  reduced  it  to  such  an  extent  that  it  can  no  longer 
do  injury.  Where  this  scale  appears  in  isolated  localities 


INSECT    PESTS   AFFECTING   THE   CITRUS.  247 

and  where  the  Vedalia  do  not  appear,  colonies  of  the  Vedalia 
should  be  procured. 

In  1872,  the  Aspidiotus  aurantii,  Maskell,  was  introduced,  also 
on  trees  from  Australia.  These  were  planted  at  Los  Angeles 
and  subsequently  some  were  taken  to  Orange,  from  which 
localities  the  pest  spread.  This  species  was  described  by  Prof. 
Maskell  and  was  imported  into  New  Zealand  from  Sydney, 
thus  settling  the  question  as  to  its  source.  Prior  to  1880,  little 
or  no  damage  was  done  by  this  pest.  The  greatest  injury  and 
spread  occurred  between  1880  and  1890.  While  no  effective 
parasite  that  preys  on  this  species  has  been  found,  the  discovery 
of  the  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  treatment  has  proved  a  great  boon 
to  the  citrus  industry,  through  which  means  the  pest  is  kept 
under  control. 

In  1872  the  Aspidiotus  citrinus,  Coquillett,  was  also  intro- 
duced, presumably  from  Australia  or  Japan,  into  the  San 
Gabriel  Valley  on  orange  trees.  At  first  the  insect  made  slow 
progress,  and  was  not  considered  a  very  serious  pest.  Between 
the  years  1883  and  1889  it  spread  very  rapidly,  in  fact  alarm- 
ingly, throughout  the  valley.  In  1889  a  parasite  of  the  genus 
Coccophagus  was  discovered  preying  upon  the  scale,  and  it  is 
now  kept  in  subjection. 

Other  species,  the  Mytilaspis  citricola,  Packard,  and  Mytilas- 
pis  Gloverii,  Packard,  have  been  introduced  on  nursery  trees, 
principally  from  Florida,  but  as  yet  they  have  been  confined 
to  those  trees  in  certain  localities  and  have  not  spread. 
Numerous  other  species  are  continually  being  discovered  on 
plants  and  trees  from  many  parts  of  the  world. 

SPECIES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 
Genus  ASPIDIOTUS,  Bouche. 

This  genus  includes  species  of  Diaspinae,  in  which  the  scale 
of  the  female  is  circular  or  nearly  so,  with  the  exuviae  at  or 
near  the  center,  and  the  scale  of  the  male  somewhat  elongated, 
with  the  larval  skin  at  one  side  of  the  center  or  near  one 
extremity.  The  last  segment  of  the  female  usually  presents 
four  groups  of  spinnerets;  in  a  few  species  there  are  five 
groups,  and  in  some  they  are  wanting. 


248  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

The  following  species  of  this  genus  infest  citrus  trees  in 
California: 

(1)  Red  scale — Aspidiotus  aurantii,  Maskell. 

(2)  Yellow  scale — Aspidiotus  citrinus,  Coquillett. 

(3)  Oleander  scale — Aspidiotus  nerii,  Comstock. 

(1)  RED  SCALE. 

A  circular,  flat  scale,  known  by  the  popular  name  of  "  red 
scale,"  from  the  color  of  its  shell. 

Scale  of  female  is  light  gray,  quite  translucent.  Female 
light  yellow  in  adolescent  stages;  as  it  reaches  maturity 
becomes  brownish.  Viviparous. 


Ventral  view  of  insect.  Red  Scale  on  leaf. 

Scale  of  male  resembles  female,  except  that  it  is  only  one 
fourth  as  large.  Male  light  yellow,  thoracic  band  brown; 
eyes  purplish  black. 

This  insect  is  the  worst  enemy  to  citrus  culture  in  California. 
It  attacks  the  trunk,  branches,  leaves,  and  fruit.  So  far  no 
effective  parasites  are  known  to  attack  it,  excepting  predaceous 
insects,  which  do  not  increase  rapidly  enough  to  check  its 
progress. 

treatment. — Rosin  solution  (formula  No.  1),  and  gas  treat- 
ment (formula  No.  4). 

(2)  YELLOW  SCALE. 

A  small  yellow  scale,  infesting  citrus  trees  in  the  San  Gabriel 
Valley,  Los  Angeles,  Sacramento,  Oroville,  and  Marysville. 


INSECT    PESTS   AFFECTING    THE   CITRUS. 


249 


This  species  differs  but  slightly  from  A.  aurantii,  excepting  in 
habits  and  color. 

Scale  of  female  circular,  body  pale  yellow.  Male  smaller 
than  female,  nearly  circular,  white,  marked  with  irregular 
yellow  spots.  Viviparous. 

This  species  only  attacks  the  leaves  and  fruit,  seldom  the 
wood.  Supposed  to  have  been  introduced  from  Japan  in  1872. 

Treatment. — Rosin  solution  (formula  No.  1),  and  gas  treat- 
ment (formula  No.  4). 


Yellow  Scale  on  leaf. 


Ventral  view  of  insect. 


(3)  OLEANDER  SCALE. 


A  small  whitish  scale  infesting  the  oleander.  It  attacks 
oranges  and  lemons;  does  not  infest  the  trees  to  their  material 
injury,  although  harmful  to  the  fruit. 

Scale  of  female  flat,  whitish  or  light  gray,  and  with  exuviae 
central  or  nearly  so.  Female  nearly  circular  in  outline.  Scale 
of  male  slightly  elongated,  with  larval  skin  nearly  central, 
snowy  white;  diameter,  .04  inch.  Oviparous. 

This  species  has  often  been  mistaken  for  the  true  "red"  scale 
when  on  lemons,  as  it  assumes  a  pinkish  tint. 

Treatment.— Hosin  solution  (formula  No.  1),  and  gas  treat- 
ment (formula  No.  4);  kerosene  emulsion  has  also  given 
satisfactory  results. 


250  STATE   BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

Genus  LECANIUM,  Illiger. 

Females  naked,  flat  or  convex,  viviparous  or  oviparous, 
propagating  without  ovisac,  arboreal. 

The  following  species  have  been  discovered  in  this  State: 

(1)  Black  scale — Lecanium  ole%,  Bernard. 

(2)  Soft  scale — Lecanium  hesperidum,  Linnaeus. 

( 3 )  Hemispherical  scale — Lecanium  hemisphasricum,TaTgiom. 

(1)  BLACK  SCALE. 
(Fig.  6,  Plate  XXVI.) 

A  blackish-brown  scale,  very  common  throughout  the  State. 
Infests  nearly  every  kind  of  tree  and  plant.  It  is  more 
troublesome  on  the  olive,  next  to  which  citrus  trees  suffer  the 
most  from  its  attacks. 

Adult  female  dark  brown,  nearly  black,  nearly  hemispherical 
in  form,  often  quite  as  long  as  broad;  average  length,  4  mm. 
to  5  mm.;  average  height,  3  mm.  Eggs  long,  oval,  0.4  mm.  in 
length,  color  yellowish.  Larva  flat  and  six-jointed. 

Undoubtedly  European,  and  infests  a  greater  variety  of 
plants  than  any  other  insect  of  this  group.  There  are  several 
parasites  that  attack  it,  and  with  the  aid  of  predaceous  ones, 
especially  the  Rhizobius  ventraliSj  recently  introduced,  it  is 
kept  in  check  in  some  localities  to  a  considerable  extent.  It 
is  most  troublesome  in  the  coast  and  bay  regions.  As  this 
scale  has  but  one  brood  a  year,  which  is  hatched  during  the 
summer,  it  is  greatly  reduced  in  number  by  the  heat  in  the 
interior  regions. 

Treatment. — Rosin  solution  (formula  No.  2),  kerosene  emul- 
sion (formula  No.  3),  and  gas  treatment  (formula  No.  4).  On 
all  trees  which  do  not  shed  their  leaves  the  gas  treatment  is 
the  only  remedy  found  to  efficiently  destroy  this  scale.  When 
properly  applied  it  should  destroy  over  99  per  cent.  The 
washes  and  sprays  are  with  difficulty  made  to  reach  over  80 
or  90  per  cent  of  the  tree  area.  The  remaining  live  scale  soon 
reestablish  themselves. 

(2)  SOFT  SCALE. 

A  dark  brown,  oval  scale,  infesting  citrus  trees  and  orna- 
mental plants. 


252  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

Adult  female,  3  mm.  to  4  mm.  long;  yellow,  inclined  to  brown 
upon  disk,  shape  elongate-oval,  nearly  flat,  smooth  and  shin- 
ing. Antennae  seven-jointed,  legs  slender  and  long.  Young 
larva  oval,  long.  Viviparous. 

This  species  is  not  a  serious  pest  and  is  easily  subdued. 
There  are  several  parasites  that  keep  it  in  check,  so  much  so 
as  to  prevent  its  doing  material  injury. 

Treatment. — Rosin  solution  (formula  No.  1),  and  kerosene 
emulsion  (formula  No.  3). 

(3)  HEMISPHERICAL  SCALE. 

A  dark  brown,  hemispherical  scale;  infests  citrus  trees  prin- 
cipally— the  lime  the  most.  The  scale  settle  on  the  limb  and 
on  the  leaf,  mostly  on  the  latter  along  the  midrib,  but  along 
the  margin  the  most.  The  average  length  of  the  adult  female 
is  3.5  mm.,  width  3  mm.,  height  2  mm.  The  shape  and  pro- 
portions vary  greatly,  according  as  the  scale  is  formed  upon 
leaf  or  twig. 

Treatment. — Kerosene  emulsion  (formula  No.  3). 

Genus  MYTILASPIS,  Targioni-Tozzetti. 

Female  and  male  puparia  similar,  or  nearly  similar,  in 
shape,  but  the  male  puparium  is  smaller.  Puparia  enlongated, 
generally  more  or  less  mussel-shaped  or  pyriform,  usually 
convex,  more  or  less  curved,  pellicles  at  one  end.  Male  pupa- 
ria not  carinated.  Five  groups  of  spinnerets  in  the  female, 
but  the  groups  are  sometimes  continuous. 

The  following  species  are  found  in  this  State: 

(1)  Purple  scale — Mytilaspis  citricola,  Packard. 

(2)  Long  scale — Mytilaspis  Gloverii,  Packard. 

(1)  PURPLE  SCALE. 

(Fig.  2,  Plate  XXV.) 

A  long  purple  scale;  infests  citrus  trees  principally.  In 
Florida  it  is  a  very  troublesome  pest,  and  was  recently  intro- 
duced into  California  on  trees  imported  from  that  State. 

Scale  of  female  long,  more  or  less  curved  and  widened  pos- 
teriorly, brown,  with  exuviae  of  same  color;  length,  .12  inch. 
Female  yellowish  white.  Scale  of  male  usually  straight,  or 
nearly  so,  of  same  color  as  scale  of  female.  Egg  white, 
arranged  irregularly  under  the  scale. 


INSECT   PESTS   AFFECTING   THE   CITRUS.  253 

Treatment.— This  scale  is  somewhat  difficult  to  destroy,  and 
will  only  yield  effectually  to  the  gas  treatment  (formula 
No.  4). 

(2)  LONG  SCALE. 

This  species,  like  the  preceding  one,  is  very  common  through- 
out Florida,  and  is  usually  associated  with  M.  citricola.  It 
infests  citrus  trees  principally. 

Scale  of  female  differs  from  M.  citricola  in  being  much  nar- 
rower, color  light  yellow,  varying  to  light  brown.  Female, 
body  light  purple.  Egg  white  when  first  laid,  becomes  tinged 
with  purple  before  hatching,  and  they  are  arranged  in  two 
rows,  in  an  irregular  manner.  Scale  of  male  similar  in  form 
to  that  of  the  female. 

Treatment. — Like  the  preceding  one,  this  scale  is  difficult  to 
destroy.  Use  the  gas  treatment  (formula  No.  4). 

Genus  ICERYA,  Signoret. 

Antennae  eleven-jointed,  body  covered  with  a  cottony  matter 
of  several  shades  of  color,  and  with  a  secretion  of  still  longer 
filaments.  Skin  with  rounded  spinnerets  and  with  long,  scat- 
tered hairs.  Antennae  of  nearly  the  same  size  throughout 
their  whole  length,  and  with  a  long  pubescence.  The  digitules 
of  the  claw  elongated  and  buttoned;  of  the  tarsi  as  simple 
hairs.  Genital  apparatus  terminating  in  a  tube  internally, 
with  a  reticulated  ring,  and  without  hairs  at  its  extremity.  An- 
tennae of  the  larva  six-jointed,  with  a  very  long  pubescence  and 
with  four  hairs  upon  the  last  joint  much  longer  than  the  others. 
Lateral  lobes  of  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen  with  a  series  of 
three  very  long,  frequently  interlaced  bristles. 

COTTONY  CUSHION  SCALE. 

A  cottonylike  insect,  infesting  citrus  trees  and  ornamental 
plants. 

Adult  female  dark  orange  red,  legs  and  antennae  black, 
covered  with  yellowish  powder.  Egg-sac  white,  tinged  with 
yellow,  and  is  ribbed  longitudinally,  and  longer  than  the  body 
of  the  insect,  filled  with  loose  cottony  mass  containing  the  eggs. 
Egg  oval  in  shape,  red,  0.7  mm.  long.  Newly  hatched  larva 
reddish  brown,  antennae  six-jointed,  begins  in  a  short  time  to 
excrete  tufts  of  yellow  waxy  matter  along  the  dorsal  surface 


254  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

of  the  body  and  lateral  margins.  The  young  creep  along  at 
first,  then  settle  along  the  underside  of  the  leaves  and  on  the 
branches,  which  they  seem  to  prefer,  but  after  passing  through 
the  second  or  third  molt  migrate  to  other  parts  of  the  tree. 

Since  the  introduction  of  the  Australian  ladybirds,  Vedalia 
cardinalis  and  Novius  Koebelei,  which  devpur  it,  this  scale  is  no 
longer  considered  a  pest. 

Treatment. — When  spraying  is  desired,  formula  No.  1  or 
No.  3  will  be  found  effective. 


Two  distinct  forms  of  Cottony  Cushion  Scale.    (After  Craw.) 

Genus  DACTYLOPIUS. 

To  this  genus  belong  the  insects  commonly  known  as  mealy 
bugs.  The  antennae  of  the  female  are  six-jointed  in  the  larva, 
and  eight-jointed  in  the  adult.  The  male  larva  has  seven-, 
jointed  antennae.  The  tarsi  are  furnished  with  four  digitules 
and  the  anal  ring  with  six  hairs. 

MEALY  BUG  (Dactylopius  adonidum,  Signoret.) 
(Fig.  1,  Plate  XXV;  Fig.  2,  Plate  XXVII.) 

This  mealy  bug  has  made  its  presence  felt  in  some  portions 
of  the  State.  It  congregates  in  large  numbers  in  portions  of 
the  tree,  especially  among  the  clusters  of  fruit. 

Treatment. — This  insect  is  effectually  destroyed  by  the  ordi- 
nary washes  used  for  scale,  and  by  the  ladybird  Cryptolasmus 
montrouzieri,  lately  introduced.  This  ladybird  is  as  effectual 
in  destroying  the  mealy  bug  as  the  Vedalia  and  Novius  are  in 
devouring  the  cottony  cushion  scale. 


INSECT   PESTS — FORMULAS    FOR    THEIR    DESTRUCTION.         255 

SIX-SPOTTED  MITE. 

Tetranychus  6-maculatus,  Riley. 

This  mite  was  introduced  into 
the  lower  portion  of  the  State 
on  citrus  trees  from  Florida.  In 
that  State  it  has  done  consider- 
able damage  to  citrus  fruits. 
Infested  trees  may  be  recognized 
by  a  mottled  appearance.  The 
mites  congregate  on  the  under- 
side of  the  leaves,  usually  pro- 
ducing a  concavity.  The  upper 
surface  of  the  leaves  is  marked 
with  yellow  blotches. 

Treatment. — Formula  No.  5. 


SIX-SPOTTED  MITE. 
a,  insect,  enlarged;   b,  tarsus;   c,  ros- 
trum and  palpus,  still  more  enlarged; 
d,  tip  of  palpus,  still  more  enlarged. 


FORMULAS    FOR    DESTROYING    INSECT    PESTS 
AFFECTING  THE  CITRUS. 

The  following  formulas  of  insecticides  for  the  destruction  of 
the  various  pests  that  affect  citrus  trees  have  proved  the  most 
effectual  in  this  State: 

(1)  Rosin  Solution. 

(For  the  Red  and  the  Yellow  Scale  on  citrus  trees.) 

Rosin ._ 20  pounds. 

Caustic  soda  (70  per  cent) 7  pounds. 

Fish  oil 3  pints. 

Water,  to  make 100  gallons. 

Place  the  rosin,  caustic  soda,  and  fish  oil  in  a  boiler,  pour 
over  them  about  20  gallons  of  water,  and  cook  thoroughly  over 
a  brisk  fire  for  three  hours;  then  add  hot  water,  a  little  occa- 
sionally, and  stir  well,  until  diluted  to  50  gallons  of  hot  solu- 
tion. Place  this  in  the  spray  tank  and  add  cold  water  to  make 
the  necessary  amount.  Never  add  cold  water  when  cooking. 


256  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

(2)  Rosin  Solution. 

(For  newly  hatched  Black  Scale  and  Soft  Brown  Scale.) 

Rosin _ 18  pounds. 

Caustic  soda  (70  per  cent) _    5  pounds. 

Fish  oil  -.- _ 2%  pints. 

Water,  to  make _ 100  gallons. 

Prepare  as  directed  in  formula  No.  1.  The  black  scale 
generally  completes  hatching  in  most  sections  by  September 
1st,  therefore  this  formula  should  be  used  during  that  month. 

(3)  Kerosene  Emulsion. 

(For  Black  Scale  and  Soft  Brown  Scale  on  citrus  trees.) 

Kerosene  oil  (Pearl,  150°  test) 5     gallons. 

Common  laundry  soap _ 1^  pounds. 

Water 2>^  gallons. 

Dissolve  the  soap  by  boiling  in  2^  gallons  of  water,  and 
while  boiling  remove  to  another  vessel;  add  the  kerosene,  and 
churn  for  fifteen  minutes,  or  until  a  perfect  emulsion  is  formed. 
Afterward  dilute  with  6^  gallons  of  hot  water  for  each  gallon 
of  oil,  and  to  the  mixture  add  2-J  pounds  of  home-made  soap 
dissolved  in  hot  water.  Apply  at  a  temperature  of  140°  F. 

(4)  The  Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas  Treatment. 

(For  destroying  scale  insects  on  citrus  trees.) 

This  treatment  should  be  used  in  the  night  to  avoid  light, 
heat,  and  sea  breeze,  which  neutralize  the  effects  of  the  gas. 
The  chemicals  used  for  producing  the  gas  are:  Sulphuric  acid 
(commercial),  cyanide  of  potassium  (98  to  99  per  cent),  and 
water. 

The  following  instructions  must  be  carefully  observed:  First, 
the  tent,  which  must  be  air-tight,  is  placed  over  the  tree; 
second,  the  tent  is  made  air-tight  around  the  bottom,  by  throw- 
ing some  loose  soil  over  the  bottom  of  the  canvas;  third,  the 
necessary  amount  of  sulphuric  acid,  together  with  the  required 
amount  of  water,  is  put  in  a  glazed  earthenware  vessel,  and 
placed  under  the  canvas,  and  the  cyanide  of  potassium  is 
added.  A  piece  of  sacking  or  burlap  is  thrown  over  the  top  of 
the  vessel,  to  spread  the  gas  and  prevent  it  from  burning  the 
leaves  immediately  above  the  generator.  The  tree  is  left 
covered  forty  minutes. 


INSECT    PESTS — FORMULAS   FOR   THEIR    DESTRUCTION.  257 

The  chemicals  are  to  be  used  in  the  following  proportions,  as 
recommended  by  the  Riverside  County  Board  of  Horticultural 
Commissioners: 


Height  of  Tree. 

Diameter  of  Tree. 

Water. 

Cyanide  C.  P.  ,98 
per  cent. 

Sulphuric  Acid, 
66  per  cent. 

Feet. 

6 

Feet. 
4 

Ounces. 
2 

Ounces. 

1 

Ounces. 

1 

8 

6          !             3 

\yz 

1/4 

10 

8 

5 

2^ 

1]4 

12 

14 

11 

5 

&A 

16 

16 

17 

8 

9 

20 

16—20 

22 

10 

12 

20—24 

18-22 

30 

14 

16 

24—30 

20—28 

34 

16 

18 

30—36 

25—30 

52 

24 

28 

The  cyanide  should  be  used  as  coarse  as  possible,  so  that 
the  chemical  action  will  be  less  violent.  The  gas  is  also 
generated  more  evenly,  and  there  is  not  so  much  danger  of 
the  chemicals  boiling  over  or  spattering  the  tent.  As  soon  as 
the  tent  is  removed  the  vessel  is  rinsed  with  clean  water  and 
prepared  for  another  charge. 

(5)  For  Mites  (Tetranychus)  on  Citrus  Trees. 

(To  be  applied  in  summer.) 

Caustic  soda  (70  percent) 10  pounds. 

Sulphur 20  pounds. 

Dissolve  in  water 20  gallons. 

Take  the  sulphur,  mix  to  a  paste — not  sloppy — with  cold 
water  in  a  barrel;  then  add  to  this  wet  sulphur  10  pounds  of 
caustic  soda  (98  per  cent)  and  it  will  boil  the  sulphur  just  like 
lime  slacking;  have  20  gallons  of  water  to  add  to  it  as  it  boils, 
to  prevent  burning.  This  is  the  stock  solution.  When  ready 
to  spray  the  mites  or  spiders,  put  40  gallons  of  water  in  another 
barrel,  and  take  a  half  gallon  of  the  stock  solution  and  add  to 
the  40  gallons  of  water,  straining  it  to  take  out  any  sediment 
there  may  have  been  in  the  sulphur.  Apply  with  a  spray 
pump  under  one  hundred  pounds  pressure. 


I7c 


258  STATE    BOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

Kahles'*  Distillate  Solution. 

(For  Black  Scale  on  citrus  trees;  apply  in  the  fall.) 

Distillate,  28°  (untreated) ._ T 5      gallons. 

Hot  water 5      gallons. 

Whale-oil  soap _ Impounds. 

The  whale-oil  soap  must  first  be  dissolved  in  the  water. 
Then  add  the  dissolved  'soap  to  the  distillate.  It  is  important 
that  the  distillate  be  placed  in  the  mixing  vessel  first;  then 
place  the  dissolved  soap  on  top.  Attach  your  spraying  pump 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  you  are  mixing  the  com- 
pound, and  keep  pumping  it  out  of  the  vessel  through  the 
spraying  pump  back  into  the  vessel,  until  the  whole  becomes 
of  a  rich  creamy  substance.  Keep  pumping  or  churning  it 
through  the  pump  until  it  becomes  a  complete  emulsion,  with- 
out a  speck  of  free  oil  in  sight,  which  will  take  from  ten  to 
fifteen  minutes.  When  properly  emulsified,  it  should  increase 
in  volume  about  one  third,  because  it  becomes  aerified. 

If  the  ground  is  in  good  condition,  containing  proper 
moisture,  and  the  trees  are  healthy  and  growing,  you  can 
apply  the  spray  in  the  proportion  of  eleven  parts  of  water  to 
one  of  the  emulsion.  If  the  trees  are  dormant  do  not  use  it 
so  strong;  say  about  twelve  or  fourteen  gallons  of  water  to  one 
gallon  of  the  stock  compound.  Always  put  your  emulsion  in 
the  apparatus  first,  then  add  the  water.  The  stock  compound 
and  the  cold  water  will  mix  as  readily  as  milk  and  water,  and 
when  finished  should  resemble  milk  in  all  appearances. 

When  spraying  be  careful  to  observe  any  particles  of  oil 
which  may  not  have  been  thoroughly  emulsified,  and  which 
rise  to  the  surface.  In  this  event,  only  use  the  correct 
emulsion,  and  when  near  the  bottom  empty  the  oil  off. 

About  200  gallons  of  the  stock  mixture  can  be  made  for 
$6.25.  The  distillate  costs  5  cents  a  gallon,  and  the  soap 
abbut  5  cents  per  pound.  Two  hundred  gallons  of  stock  mix- 
ture at  eleven  to  one  give  2,200  gallons  of  spraying  mixture. 

This  solution  is  made  the  same  as  the  kerosene  emulsion, 
only  this  distillate  contains  all  the  natural  oils  and  strength 
of  the  crude  oil,  nothing  being  taken  therefrom  except  the 
asphaltura.  Therefore,  it  is  a  great  deal  stronger  and  stays 

*  F.  Kahles,  Superintendent  of  Crocker-Sperry  Lemon  Grove,  Montecito. 


BENEFICIAL    INSECTS — PREDACEOUS.  259 

longer  on  the  trees  without  evaporating.     Eleven  to  one  is  the 
strongest  it  can  be  used  with  safety  on  citrus  trees. 

This  remedy  is  used  by  Mr.  NefF,  Superintendent  of  the  Win- 
dermere  Orchards  at  La  Mirada,  but  he  uses  twenty  pounds 
more  whale-oil  soap,  on  account  of  lime  in  the  water  at  that 
place.  On  this  account  it  requires  nearly  an  hour  to  prepare  a 
perfect  emulsion.  He  also  uses  warm  water  to  add  to  the  stock 
solution,  as  it  works  better  than  cold  water.  Mr.  Neff  says: 
"  Some  distillates  will  kill  very  large  'black  scale,'  while  another 
lot  of  distillates,  apparently  the  same,  does  not  kill  any  scales 
larger  than  a  pinhead." 

BENEFICIAL  INSECTS-PREDACEOUS. 

In  no  part  of  the  world  has  the  value  of  predaceous  and 
parasitical  insects  been  more  fully  demonstrated  than  in  this 
State.  The  cottony  cushion  scale  (Icerya  purchasi,  Maskell) 
had  gained  a  very  strong  foothold  here,  especially  on  citrus 
trees,  and  the  damage  done  by  its  ravages  can  hardly  be  esti- 
mated. Everywhere  was  noted  its  resistless  and  ruthless 
march.  Watchfulness  did  not  guard  against  its  spread.  The 
most  heroic  treatments  proved  of  no  avail.  But  in  the  deep 
night  of  our  despair  there  came  to  our  relief  a  minute  ladybird, 
the  Vedalia  cardinalis,  which  in  less  than  a  year  entirely  freed 
the  orchards  of  California  of  that  pest,  thereby  accomplishing 
a  work  entirely  unprecedented  in  the  annals  of  economic 
entomology.  In  1892  another  ladybird,  Novius  Koebelei  (see 
Plate  XXVI),  also  a  foe  to  this  scale,  was  introduced,  although 
a  repetition  of  the  work  achieved  by  the  Vedalia  was  gravely 
doubted.  What  energy,  science,  and  money  could  not  perform 
in  years,  these  minute  creatures  accomplished  in  a  short  period 
of  time,  and  to  those  who  closely  watched  their  work  it  seems 
almost  incomprehensible. 

These  friendly  foes  are  assisted  materially  by  other  species, 
and  especially  by  internal  parasites.  That  other  insects  with 
similar  instincts  could  ever  be  discovered  was  doubted,  but 
through  persistence  and  faith  on  the  part  of  the  State  Board 
of  Horticulture,  a  further  search  was  instituted,  which  was 
rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  two  other  species.  One,  the 
Rhizobius  ventralis  (see  Plate  XXVI),  is  an  effective  foe  of  the 
black  scale  (Lecanium  olex'),  which  it  is  diminishing  very 


260  STATE    EOARD    OF    HORTICULTURE. 

rapidly  in  many  Sections  of  the  State.  This  ladybird  has 
proved  most  effective  in  the  coast  and  bay  counties,  where  it 
finds  a  congenial  home.  The  other  species,  the  Cryptolsemus 
montrouzieri  (see  Plate  XXVII),  has  proved  an  effective  enemy 
of  the  mealy  bug.  The  investigation  is  stiil  in  progress,  and 
George  Compere,  "  Special  Agent"  of  the  State  Board  of  Horti- 
culture, accompanied  by  Prof.  Albert  Koebele,  is  at  present 
traveling  over  the  Old  World  in  quest  of  the  natural  enemies 
of  insect  pests,  which  mission  will  no  doubt  be  crowned  with 
success. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  XXVI. 


fw  P\ 


Fig.  1.  Novius  Koebelei — 
female,  enlarged. 

Fig.  2.  Novius  Koebelei— 
larva, enlarged. 

Fig.  3.  Xovius  Koebelei — 
male,  enlarged. 

Fig.  4.  Rltizobius  ventra- 
/s— enlarged. 

Fig.  5.  Ulii.ni. ins  rentra- 
/-.larva,  enlarged. 

Fig.  6.  Rhizobius  ventra- 
(is— larvsi'  at  work  on  black 
scale  (Lecaniu 


*    *     * 
*    * 

* 


FIG.  6. 


LADYBIRDS— NEWLY  INTRODUCED  SPECIES  IMPORTED  BY  STATE  BOARD  OF 
HORTICULTURE  THAT  HAVE  PROVED  EMINENTLY  SUCCESSFUL. 


CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  CULTURE. 


PLATE  XXVII. 


FIG.  \-Cnjptolicmus  montrouzieri— larva,  enlarged. 


FIG.  '2—Crij},tol'nnus  montrouzieri— twig  showing  larva  and  pupa,  natural  size. 


FIG.  %—Cryptotemut  montrouzieri—  FIG.  t—Cnjptoln-miis  muiitrouzieri—pupa, 

perfect  insect,  enlarged.  enlarged. 


LADYBIRDS— NEWLY  INTRODUCED  SPECIES  IMPORTED  BY  STATE  BOARD  OF 
HORTICULTURE  THAT  HAVE  PROVED  EMINENTLY  SUCCESSFUL. 


THIS  BOOK  IS 


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RECEIVED 

DEC  30 '66:2  PM 
LOAN  DEPT. 

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